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PfMMARY  AND  SECONDAKV 
PV5LIC  EDUCATION 


IN   MICHIGAN 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Glass 

1 

I 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Arcliive, 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/developmentofpriOOputnrich 


The  Development 

of 

Primary  and  Secondary 
Public  Education 


m 


Michigan, 


A  Historical  Sketch 
by 

Daniel  Putnam^ 


Professor  in  the  Normal  College,  Ypsila^u       ^'^    oalT"*^     ^ 


Of 


GEORGE  WAH  R 
PUBLISHER    AND     BOOKSELLER 

ANN    ARBOR.     MICH. 


Lf^2Q7 


'>'-Mir«3i 


£a!.L 


COPYRIGHT  1904 

BY 

GEORGE    WAHR. 


THE  CAMPUS   PRESS 

ANN  ARBOR.    MICH, 


PRBFACB. 

Excellent  histories  of  the  University  and  of  higher  edu- 
cation in  Michigan  have  been  published,  but  no  connected 
history  of  the  development  of  primary  and  secondary  edu- 
cation in  the  State  has  appeared.  Such  history  is  found  only 
in  multifarious  reports  and  other  documents  of  a  more  or 
less  permanent  character.  The  lack  of  any  history  of  this 
kind  has  been  a  matter  of  regret  and  inconvenience,  and 
occasionally  of  reproach  to  the  commonwealth.  In  a  cor- 
respendence  with  the  lamented  Dr.  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  a  short 
time  previous  to  his  death,  he  expressed  his  sense  of  the 
want  of  such  a  work,  and  urged  some  reasons  why  the  pres- 
ent writer  should  undertake  to  supply  it.  Until  that  time 
I  had  formed  no  definite  purpose  of  preparing  this  volume. 
Some    circumstances,    however,    favored    the    undertaking. 

In  the  performance  of  my  official  duties,  it  had  been  neces- 
sary for  me  to  acquaint  myself  with  the  school  laws  and 
educational  institutions  of  the  State ;  and  in  the  preparation 
of  histories  of  the  normal  school,  of  the  institute  work,  of 
the  educational  funds,  and  of  the  State  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion, I  had  collected  a  considerable  amount  of  material  for 
such  a  history,  and  had  discovered  where  still  more  material 
could  be  found.  I  have  arranged  this  material  in  such 
form  as,  on  the  whole,  seemed  best  adapted  to  the  end  in 
view.  The  plan  adopted  has  necessitated  occasionally  a 
little  repetition,  and  sometimes  the  separation  of  closely  re- 
lated matters.  But  it  is  believed  that  these  disadvantages 
are  not  serious,  and  are  more  than  compensated  by  offsetting 
advantages. 


iv  PREFACE 

It  will  be  observed  that  I  have  quoted  literally  and  freely 
from  reports  and  other  documents.  This  has  been  done 
of  set  purpose.  I  have  preferred  to  allow  men,  as  far  as 
possii  Ic,  to  state  their  own  position  and  express  their  own 
opinions  in  their  own  words.  This  enables  the  reader  to 
form  a  judgment  of  his  own  relative  to  men  and  meas- 
ures, instead  of  compelling  him  to  accept  or  reject  the 
ready-made  judgment  of  the  writer. 

It  has  been  my  good  fortune  to  have  some  personal  knowl- 
edge of  all  the  Michigan  Superintendents  of  Public  In- 
struction, with  the  single  exception  of  Mr.  Sawyer.  Super- 
intendent Pierce  was  a  neighbor  for  several  years.  I  was 
intimately  associated  with  Superintendents  Gregory  and 
Hosford  during  fourteen  eventful  years  in  the  educational 
history  of  the  State.  Through  personal  intercourse  it  is 
possible  to  gather  impressions  and  information  which  have 
never  been  committed  to  writing,  and  to  get  a  more  correct 
understanding  of  men  and  measures  than  can  be  obtained 
from  printed  documents.  It  will  be  generally  admitted  that 
one  should  profit  by  such  opportunities. 

No  one  can  be  more  sensible  of  the  inadequacy  of  this 
presentation  of  the  progressive  development  of  the  primary 
and  secondary  public  school  system  of  Michigan  than  the 
writer,  but  he  hopes,  nevertheless,  that  it  may  have  some- 
thing of  interest  and  value  to  the  teachers  and  to  the  people 
of  the  State  generally.  The  preparation  of  this  little  volume 
practically  closes  a  term  of  service  in  the  educational  work 
of  my  adopted  State  extending  over  a  period  of  a  half  cen- 
tury. I  commit  it  to  the  charitable  judgment  of  those  who 
may  read  it,  and  myself  to  the  kindly  remembrance  of  the 
many  whom  I  have  had  the  pleasure  of  knowing  in  the  var- 
ious relations  which  teachers  and  pupils  sustain  to  one 
another. 

Normal  College,  Ypsilanti,  1904. 


CONTENTS. 

EDUCATION  IN  THE  TERRITORIAL  PERIOD. 
Chapter  i. 

Topics  : 
'  Three  nations  have  ruled  in  Michigan. 
Centralization  under  the  French. 
Education  during  the  French  period. 
Parochical  and  private  schools. 
Form  of  the  Territorial  government. 
First  primary  school  law  in  the  Territory. 
.  Catholipistemiad  or  University  of  Michigania,  1817. 
Conduct  of  the  Affairs  of  the  University. 
No  local  management  of  schools. 
Territorial  government  changed. 
Recommendations   of   Governor   Cass. 
Law  of  1827  for  public  schools. 
Change  of  this  law  recommended  by  Governor  Cass. 
Character  of  the  new  law. 

Provisions  for  the  support  of  primary  schools. 
Provisions  as. to  teachers. 
Summary  of  conditions. 
Description  of  the  schools  by  Justice  Cooley. 

CONSTITUTIONAL    PROVISIONS    AS    TO    EDUCATION. 
Chapter  2. 

Isaac  E.  Crary  and  John  D.  Pierce. 
Origin  of  the  Michigan   School  system. 
Convention  and  Constitution  of  1835. 
Convention  and  Constitution  of  1850. 
Question  of  Free  Schools. 
Other  languages  than  English. 
Election  of  Regents  of  the  University. 
Article  upon  Education. 
Finance  and  Taxation. 


vi  CONTENTS 

THE  state:  schooi,  syste:m. 

Chat>tcr  3. 

-John  D.  Pierce  appointed  Superintendent. 

^Mr,   Pierce's  first  and  second  reports. 

■•The  importance  of  education. 

^Free  Schools  and  required  attendance. 

^Schools  of  high  character  needed. 
^  Position  of  Mr.  Pierce  in  respect  to  private  schools. 
^  Discussions  in  the  second  report. 
"  Duty  and  authority  of  the  vState. 
^  Need  of  qualified  teachers. 
'  Charters   for  denominational   colleges. 

Views  of  distinguished  educators. 

Position  of  the  Legislature;  public  sentiment.* 
"'  Further  discussion  in  relation  to  teachers. 

Opinion  as  to  teachers'  wages. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOI,  SYSTEM. 
Chapter  4. 

Three  legislative  acts  formed  the  system. 

The  primary  school   act. 

Powers  of  the  district. 

District  officers. 

Township    school    officers. 

Duties  of  certain  county  officers. 

District  libraries. 

Organization  of  the  University;  Branches. 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

Summary  of  the  original  school  system. 

DEVFXOPMENT  OF  THE  COMMON  DISTRICT  SCHOOI^S. 

Chapter  5. 

The  school  districts. 
Local  machinery  not  much  changed. 
Direction  of  evolution;  studies,  books. 
Discussions  as  to  courses  of  studies. 
Work  under  the  county  superintendency. 
Courses  of  studies  provided. 


CONTENTS  V 

Latest  courses  by  Superintendent  Fall. 
Relation  of  district  schools  to  other  parts  of  the  system. 
Examinations  on  completion  of  eight  grades. 
Agricultural  college  course. 


DEVEIvOPMEINT    OF    UNION    AND    GRAD1:D    SCHOOI.S. 
Chapter  6. 

First  efforts  for  uniting  districts. 

Condition  of  large  towns  in  1840. 

Provisions  of- school  code  of  1846. 

Amendments  in  1849;  large  villages. 

Arguments  of  Superintendent  Mayhew. 

Reports  in  1857 ;  dates  of  organization  of  schools. 

Resolution  of  State  Teachers'  Association. 

Circular  of  Mr.  Mayhew  in  1857. 

Circular  of  Superintendent  Gregory  in  1859;  replies. 

Arguments  of  Mr.  Gregory  in  1861. 

Modifications  and  improvements  of  the  law. 

Growth  of  graded  schools. 

The  township  school  district;  growth. 


ST5C0NDARY   EDUCATION. — TIIF,    HIGH    SCHOOLS. 

Chapter  7. 

Secondary  education  in  the  Territorial  period. 

Branches  of  the  University  established;   discontinued. 

Ridicule,  cast  upon  Mr.  Pierce's  plan. 

Estimation  put  upon  the  system  by  many  men. 

Secondary  instruction  furnished  by  academies,  etc. 

Recommendations  by  State  Superintendents. 

High  school  departments  of  graded  schools. 

Doubts  as  to  legality  of  appropriations  for  their  support. 

"The  Kalamazoo  case ;"  decision  by  Justice  Cooley. 

Growth  of  high  schools  since  the  decision. 

Affiliation  with  the  University. 

Affiliation  with  other  institutions. 

The  dream  of  "Father  Pierce"  a  reality. 


viii  CONTENTS 

de:ve;lopme;nt  o:^  course:s  of  studies. 

Chapter  8. 

Discussion  of  courses  by  Superintendent  Gregory. 

Studies  for  rural  district  schools. 

Action  of  City  Superintendents  in  1868. 

Course  for  twelve  years  arranged. 

Difficulties  in  the  way;  different  grades  of  schools. 

Work  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association. 

No  uniform  course  agreed  upon. 

School  boards  may  establish  Kindergartens. 

PROVISIONS    FOR    THE    SUPPORT    OE    SCHOOI.S. 

Chapter  9. 

Funds  to  pay  wages  of  teachers. 
Primary  schools  fund;  how  apportioned. 
Origin  of  this  fund;  ''swamp  lands." 
Growth  of  this  fund. 
Use  of  "specific  taxes." 

Increase  of  apportionment  of  school  funds. 
Township  taxes  for  school  purposes. 
Increase  of  the  "mill  tax." 
District,  village,  and  city  taxes. 
Amounts  paid  for  teachers'  wages. 
Provision  for  district  taxation. 
Increase  in  the  resources  of  districts. 

FREE   SCHOOI.S   AND   REQUIRED   ATTENDANCE. 

Chapter  10. 

Views  of  Superintendent  Pierce. 

State  of  public  sentiment. 

Conditions  in  Detroit  previous  to  1841. 

Discussion  in  State  Teachers'  Association  in  1858. 

Action  of  the  Association  ten  years  later. 

Schools  made  free  July  3,  1869. 

Free  schools  in  some  other  states. 

Compulsory  attendance;  law  of  1871. 

New  law  .of  1883 ;  amended  1885. 

Other  kindred  laws;  summary  of  existing  laws. 


CONTENTS  ix 

PREPARATION  OF  Te:aCHKRS. 
Chapter  ii. 

Views  of  Superintendent  Pierce. 

Normal  department  in  the  Branches. 

Views  of  Governor  Mason. 

Views  of  Superintendents  Sawyer  and  Comstock. 

Superintendent  Mayhew's  efforts. 

Teachers'  Institutes. 

Legislative  act  establishing  Institutes. 

Enactment  of  1877. 

Number  of  Institutes. 

Normal  schools  recommended. 

Act  for  establishing  school  at  Ypsilanti. 

Dedication  of  the  first  Building. 

First  teachers  in  the  school. 

Number  of  graduates  to  the  year  1899. 

Efforts  for  additional  normal  schools. 

Central  Normal  School  at  Mt.  Pleasant. 

Northern  Normal  School  at  Marquette. 

System  of  Normal  Schools. 

Science  and  art  of  teaching  in  the  University, 

Teachers'  Courses  in  the  Colleges. 

Summary  of  facilities  for  the  preparation  of  teachers. 

CERTIFICATES    OF    TEACHERS    AND    SUPERVISION    OF    SCHOOLS. 

Chapter  12. 

Township  school  inspectors. 

County  Superintendents. 

Grades  of  Certificates. 

Visiting  the  schools. 

Township  Superintendents. 

County  Examiners  and  Township  Superintendents. 

Provision  for  County  Supervision. 

County  Commissioners  of  Schools. 

Qualifications  of  County  Commissioners. 

Grades  of  Certificates. 

State  Board  of  Education  grants  certificates. 

Normal  School  diplomas  and  certificates. 

Certificates  for  College  graduates. 


X  CONTENTS 

Certificates  from  the  University. 

Certificates  in  some  cities. 

Teachers  of  Kindergarten,  of  Music,  and  Drawing. 

ABOUT  Ti:xT-BOOKS. 

Chapter  13. 

Condition  as  to  text-books  at  first. 

First  act  relating  to  text-books. 

Proposed  plan  to  supply  text-books. 

State  Superintendent  to  recommend  a  list  of  books. 

Recommendation  of  Superintendent  Mayhew. 

District  boards  directed  to  prescribe  text-books. 

List  of  books  in  the  schools. 

Statement  of  Superintendent  Hosford. 

Discussion  by  Superintendent  Tarbell. 

Free  text-books  as  the  best  solution. 

Report  of  Superintendent  Gass. 

Law  of  1883  as  to  physiology,  hygiene,  etc. 

Free  text-books  at  Saginaw,  1885. 

General  law  for  free  text-books,  1889, 

What  books  may  be  furnished  free. 

Statute  of  1897 ;  repealed  in  following  year. 

General  result  of  the  free  text-book  law: 

Present  conditions  as  to  text-books. 

the:  library  system. 

Chapter  14. 

Constitutional  provisions. 
Recommendations  of  Superintendent  Pierce. 
Slow  progress  of  libraries. 
Township  or  district  libraries. 
Recommendations  of  Superintendent  Gregory. 
State  Board  of  Education  to  recommend  books. 
Superintendent  Hosford's  statements. 
Superintendent  Gower's  statements. 
Statistics  in  the  report  of  1890. 
Present  provisions  of  law. 
Teachings  of  experience. 


CONTENTS  xi 

e;quai.ity  o^  e:ducationai.  rights  and  privii.ege:s. 
Chapter  15. 

No  extended  history  of  the  struggle  for  equality. 

Co-education  not  necessarily  identical  education. 

Conditions  in  the  early  history  of  the  country. 

Education  of  girls  in  the  early  public  schools. 

Mrs.  Allen's  account  of  her  education. 

Instruction  of  girls  in  private  schools. 

Education    of   girls    in    Michigan    during   the   Territorial 

period. 
Girls  in  the  branches  of  the  University. 
Girls  in  the  early  graded  schools. 
Opinions  respecting  co-education. 

Demand  that  the  State  furnish  equal  facilities  for  women. 
Opinions  of  Superintendents   Shearman  and  Mayhew. 
Discussions  in  State  Teachers'  Association. 
Report  of  committee  of  Board  of  Regents  in  1859. 
View  of  President  Haven. 
University  opened  to  women  in  1870. 

AS   TO    MORAIv   AND   REUGIOUS    INSTRUCTION. 
Chapter  16. 

The  religious  instinct  fundamental  in  the  soul. 

Religious  sentiment  taken  into  account. 

Views  of  Superintendent  Pierce. 

Action  of  Board  of  Regents  in  relation  to  teachers. 

Views  of  Rev.  Dr.  Dufheld. 

Religious   instruction   in  the   early  public  schools   of  the 

country. 
Earliest  controversies  as  to  religious  instruction. 
Conditions  in  Massachusetts  and  New  York  in  1837. 
Criticisms  upon  Horace  Mann. 
The  controversy  in  New  York. 
Constitutional  provisions  in  Michigan. 
Criticisms  upon  the  University. 
Report  of  the  President  and  faculties. 
Changed  conditions  and  changed  methods. 
The  religious  question  in  the  primary  schools, 


xii  CONTENTS 

Superintendent  Sawyer's  investigations. 
Replies  to  Mr.  Sawyer's  inquiries. 
Views  of  Superintendent  Comstock. 
Conflict  in  the  City  of  Detroit ;  final  result. 
Efforts  for  division  of  proceeds  of  school  funds  . 
Extracts  from  a  report  to  the  Legislature. 
Discussions  in  State  Teachers'  Association. 
Resolution  adopted  in  1859. 
Address  by  Prof.  Joseph  Estabrook  in  1869. 
Convictions  as  to  proper  ethical  instruction. 

STATE    SUPERINTENDENT    AND    STATE    BOARD    OE    EDUCATION. 

Chapter  17. 

Constitutional  provisions  as  to  Superintendent. 

Views  of  Superintendent  Shearman. 

First  duties  of  the  Superintendent. 

Duties  prescribed  by  statute  in  1850. 

Creation  of  the  Board  of  Education  in  1849. 

Made  a  constitutional  board  in  1850. 

Office  and  Salary  of  the  Superintendent. 

Views  of  Superintendent  Shearman  in   1854. 

Views  of  Superintendent  Mayhew,  1855-56. 

Deputy  Superintendent  authorized  in  1859. 

Board  of  Education  and  the  Agricultural  College. 

Duty  of  the  Board  to  recommend  Library  Books. 

State  Superintendent  and  Teachers'  Institutes. 

State  Teachers'  Certificates. 

Questions  for  Teachers'  Examinations. 

Duties  of  Superintendent  and  Board  greatly  increased. 

SPECIAE    INSTITUTIONS    OE    PRIMARY    AND    SECONDARY    EDU- 
CATION. 
Chapter  18. 

The  State  Agricultural  College. 
The   School  for  the  Deaf. 
The   School  for  the  Blind. 
The  Industrial  School  for  Boys. 
The  Industrial  Home  for  Girls. 


CONTENTS 


xm 


The  State  Public  School. 

The  Home  for  the  Feeble  Minded  and  Epileptic, 


some;  gkne:ral  statistics  and  re:^ere:nce:s. 

Chapter  19. 

School  reports  in  early  years  imperfect. 
Table  relating  to  Children. 
Table  relating  to  Teachers  and  Wages. 
Table  showing  financial  conditions. 
References  and  authorities. 
Addenda — School  funds. 


APPENDIX. 

School  legislation  of  1903. 

County  Normal  training  classes. 

Controlled  by  a  county  board. 

Form  of  organization. 

Qualifications   for  admission. 

Courses  of  study. 

Character  of  certificates. 

Supported  by  State,  county,  and  district. 

Additional  Normal  School. 

Powers  of  Board  of  Education  enlarged. 

Employment   Institution   for  the   Blind, 

Tuition  and  transportation  of  pupils. 

Change  of  time  for  examinations. 

Changes  in  law  as  to  libraries. 


SUPPLEMENTARY    CHAPTER. 

Sketch  of  State  Teachers'  Association, 
Organization  and  early  members. 
Brief  notices   of  individuals. 
Journal  of  Education. 
Topics  discussed  and  acted  upon. 
The  Bible  in  the  Schools. 
Efforts  for  Teachers'  Institutes. 
Equal   educational   opportunities. 


CONTENTS 

Improved  Supervision  of  Schools. 

Township  School  districts. 

The  "rate  bill"  Free  Schools. 

Decline  of  the  Association. 

Educational  State  officers. 

Beginnings  of  improvement  in  Association. 

Additional    names    of    members. 

Fiftieth   annual   meeting   at    Saginaw. 

Some  things  accomplished  by  the  Association. 

Presidents  during  first  twenty-five  years. 

Index. 


CHAPTER  I. 
EDUCATION  IN  THE  TERRITORIAL  PERIOD. 

The  flags  of  three  nations  have  successively  represented 
sovereignty  and  civiHzation  in  Michigan.  Each  flag  has 
symbolized  certain  principles  and  characteristics  of  political, 
civil,  religious,  and  educational  administration.  French  pop- 
ulation and  French  principles  and  modes  of  administration 
predominated  for  more  than  a  century  after  the  founding 
of  Detroit  by  Cadillac  in  1701.  The  transfer  of  the  terri- 
tory to  English  rule  made  no  essential  change  in  the  man- 
agement of  local  affairs,  and  the  subsequent  transfer  to 
the  United  States  produced  no  immediate  revolution  in 
previously  established  methods  of  local  governm.ent. 

Under  the  French  regime  centralization  was  the  funda- 
mental principle  in  all  affairs.  The  military  commandant 
was  supreme  in  the  State,  and  the  priest  or  bishop  in  the 
church.  Education  was  a  function  of  the  church.  The 
initiative  in  everything  was  in  the  officials,  not  in  the 
people.  There  were  no  semi-independent  local  organiza- 
tions, like  the  New  England  towns  to  provide  for  the  man- 
agement and  support  of  schools.  This  fact  must  be  kept 
in  mind  in  order  to  understand  and  judge  fairly  the  educa- 
tional measures  of  the  early  Territorial  government.  The 
educational  methods  of  the  older  States  could  not  success- 


2       EARLY  ATTENTION  TO  EDUCATION. 

fully  adopted  ntitil  the  immigration  of  American  population 
should  give  predominance  to  American  ideas  and  to  Amer- 
ican modes  of  local  organization.  At  first  few  townships 
and  no  school  districts  existed. 

There  is  evidence,  however,  that  some  attention  was  given 
to  education  even  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  French  settle- 
ment. Two  years  after  the  founding  of  Detroit,  Cadillac, 
the  commandant,  in  a  communication  to  Count  Pontchar- 
train,  wrote:  "Permit  me  to  insist  upon  the  great  necessity 
there  is  for  the  estahlishment  of  a  Seminary  at  this  place 
for  the  instruction  of  children  of  the  savages  with  those  of 
the  French,  instructing  them  in  piety  and,  at  the  same  time, 
teaching  them  our  language."* 

It  is  doubtful  if  this  recommendation  produced  any  imme- 
diate results,  as  Silas  Farmer  states  that  no  indication  of 
schools  or  teachers  can  be  found  until  1755,  a  half  century 
later.  At  the  close  of  another  half  century  in  1804,  a 
Ladies'  Academy  and  a  School  for  young  men  were  opened 
by  ^'Father  Richard."  These,  of  course,  were  church 
schools. 

In  1808  Father  Richard  presented  to  the  officers  of  the 
Territorial  government  a  full  report  of  the  character  and 
condition  of  the  Catholic  Schools  in  Detroit  and  vicinity. 
Besides  the  English  schools  in  Detroit,  there  were  four 
primary  schools  for  boys  and  two  for  young  ladies.  Some 
of  these  were  taught  by  natives  of  the  coimtry.  In  one  of 
the  schools  were  several  young  Indians  of  the  Pottowat- 
amie  tribe.  In  an  Academy  for  young  ladies  more  than 
thirty  young  girls  were  "taught  knitting,  sewing,  spinning 
and  other  occupations  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  common 


*Farmer's  History  of  Detroit,  p.  720, 


PRIVATE    SCHOOLS  3 

school  studies.  There  were  in  two  schools  three  dozen 
spinning  wheels  and  a  loom;  and  a  spinning  machine  of 
about  a  hundred  spindles  had  been  ordered  from  New  York. 
Father  Richard  had  in  view  plans  for  an  Academy  or  high 
school  for  boys  and  the  beginnings  of  a  public  library.  '  He 
seems  to  have  been  a  practical  advocate  of  industrial  educa- 
tion and  to  have  been  a  progressive  educator  in  other  direc- 
tions. 

Private  schools  of  varying  degrees  of  excellence  are 
reported  to  have  existed  from  1775.  Most  of  these  were 
short-lived  and  of  inferior  character.  It  daes  not  fall  with- 
in our  purpose  to  trace  their  history  or  to  estimate  their 
value  in  the  community.  They  are  mentioned,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  parochial  schools,  to  show  that,  while  no 
public  provision  had  yet  been  made  for  education,  the  better 
informed  of  the  peo])le  were  alive  to  its  importance,  and 
were  becoming  ready  to  co-operate  with  the  authorities 
whenever  some  feasible  plan  should  be  presented.  Condi- 
tions were  such  that  the  initiative  could  come  only  from 
the  Territorial  government. 

The  form  of  this  government  was  peculiar.  It  was 
highly  centralized,  and  had  few  features  which  would  today 
be  regarded  as  democratic.  Legislative,  executive,  and 
judicial  authority  was  entirely  vested  in  a  Governor  and 
three  Judges  appointed  by  the  President  with  the  consent 
and  approval  of  the  Senate.  A  Secretary  was  added  who 
became  acting  Governor  in  the  absence  of  that  officer.  All 
local  offices  were  created  by  the  governor  and  all  local  offi- 
cers were  appointed  by  him.  The  people  generally  ''had 
no  feeling  of  responsibility  in  respect  to  public  and  govern- 
mental concerns,  and  submitted  cheerfully  and  without  cjues- 


4  FIRST   SCHOOL  LAW. 

tion  to  the  authorities  placed  over  them." 

The  character  and  habits  of  the  people,  and  the  condition 
of  local  affairs  in  the  Territory,  naturally  determined  the 
form  of  school  legislation  and  the  provisions  for  the  organi- 
zation, management,  and  support  of  schools.  The  peculiar 
features  of  the  enactments  of  1817  and  1821  become  par- 
tially intelligible  at  least  in  view  of  these  facts. 

The  first  law  relating  to  schools  was  promulgated  in 
February,  1809:  this  act  seems  not  to  have  been  printed 
and  no  copy  of  it  is  known  to  be  in  existence.  In  the  intro- 
ductory explanation  to  the  ''Territorial  Laws"  it  is  spoken 
of  as  ''missing."  Justice  Cooley  in  his  History  of  Michigan, 
gives  a  synopsis  of  the  law,  but  I  am  unable  to  ascertain 
the  source  from  which  he  received  his  information.  He 
states  that  "the  act  provided  for  the  laying  off  into  school 
districts  of  all  the  settled  portions  of  the  territory,  and  for 
an  enumeration  of  the  children  between  the  ages,  of  four 
and  eighteen  in  each  of  the  districts.  From  these  districts 
annual  reports  were  required  of  the  moneys  expended  in 
the  support  of  schools  and  the  construction  of  school  build- 
ings, and  the  territorial  government  was  to  levy  an  annual 
tax  of  not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  four  dollars  for 
each  child  reported  within  the  ages  mentioned.  The  sum 
collected  was  to  be  apportioned  among  the  districts;  not, 
however,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  in  them 
respectively,  but  in  proportion  to  the  sums  expended  in 
the  year  preceding  for  school  purposes." 

It  will  be  observed  that  funds  for  school  purposes  were 
to  be  raised  by  a  general  tax  upon  the  property  of  the  terri- 
tory and  not  by  local  taxation.  There  is,  however,  an 
implication  that  money  might  be  raised  in  the  districts,  but 


STATUTE  OF  1817  5 

probably  by  voluntary  contributions.  No  mention  is  made 
of  local  officers  or  of  the  qualifications  or  employment  of 
of  teachers.  P'armer's  History  of  Detroit  states  that  the 
overseers  of  the  poor  were  to  form  school  districts  out  of 
their  own  districts  and  act  as  trustees  of  the  same,  and  that 
Judges  of  District  Courts  were  to  appropriate  the  moneys. 
The  people  of  the  various  localities  had  no  voice  in  the 
organization  and  management  of  schools.  There  is  no  evi- 
dence that  any  school  districts  were  formed  or  any  schools 
organized  under  that  act.  In  all  probability  the  law  was  a 
dead  letter  from  the  first.  No  further  legislation  appears 
to  have  taken  place  until  1817.  Meanwhile  private  and 
church  schools  furnished  whatever  education  the  people  had. 
Rev.  John  Montieth,  a  Presbyterian  clergyman,  a  grad- 
uate of  Princeton  college,  came  to  Detroit  in  18 16  and  gath- 
ered a  congregation  of  Protestants  to  whom  he  ministered 
for  several  years.  In  connection  with  the  catholic  priest 
^'Father  Richard,"  he  succeeded  in  stirring  up  the  Territor- 
ial government  to  make  some  provision  for  public  education. 
Governor  Lewis  Cass,  a  native  of  New  Hampshire,  seven 
years  a  student  in  the  Academy  at  Exeter,  then  under  the 
Principalship  of  the  famous  Benjamin  Abbott,  was  more 
than  ready  to  second  any  feasible  efforts  for  the  instruction 
of  the  children  of  the  common  people.  In  August,  18 17, 
an  act  was  passed  by  the  Territorial  government  incorporat- 
ing an  institution  called  the  "Catholipistemead,  or  Univer- 
sity of  Michigania."  The  pedantic  and  absurd  nomencla- 
ture of  this  act  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  it  was 
drawn  up  by  the  eccentric  Judge  Woodward  and  enacted 
during  the  temporary  absence  of  the  Governor.  We  are 
here  concerned  with  this  law  only  so  far  as  it  affected  sec- 


6  POWERS  OF  THE  FACULTY 

ondary  and  primary  education.  It  provides  not  merely  for 
the  establishment  of  a  single  institution  of  high  rank,  but 
also  a  unique  and  complete  school  system  for  the  whole 
Territory.  The  President. and  Professors  of  the  institution 
were  to  be  appointed  by  the  Governor  and  their  salaries 
were  to  be  paid  from  the  treasury  of  the  territory.  Thirteen 
professorships  were  provided  for,  but  the  same  individual 
might  be  appointed  to  several  chairs.  Mr.  Montieth  was 
appointed  President  and  was  given  seven  professorships: 
Father  Richard  was  made  Vice  President  and  held  the  other 
six  professorships.  Consequently  the  faculty  consisted  of 
two  men,  a  Presbyterian  and  a  Roman  Catholic.  There  is 
no  report  of  discord  or  conflict  in  the  faculty.  In  addition 
to  managing  the  affairs  of  the  University  proper,  the  fac- 
ulty, that  is,  these  two  individuals,  were  empowered  '*to 
establish  colleges,  academies,  schools,  libraries,  museums, 
botanic  gardens,  laboratories,  and  other  useful  literary  and 
scientific  institutions  consonant  to  the  laws  of  the  United 
vStates  of  America  and  of  Michigan,"  and  to  appoint  teachers 
and  other  school  officers  in  all  the  counties,  towns,  and  cities 
of  the  territory.  All  teachers  of  every  grade  were  to  be 
paid  from  the  public  treasury.  Fifteen  per  cent  of  the  public 
taxes  w^as  set  apart  for  the  support  of  schools.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  whole  educational  system  of  the  Territory 
and  all  schools  from  the  University  to  the  lowest  primary, 
were  made  subject  to  the  immediate  and  absolute  control 
of  a  small  central  board,  and  this  board  was  appointed  by 
the  Governor,  and  the  Governor  was  appointed  by  the  Pres- 
ident. The  people  had  "no  part  or  lot  in  the  matter"  except 
to  pay  the  taxes.  And  yet  this  system  was  not  out  of  har- 
mony with  the  then  existing  condition  of  affairs;  the  con- 


A  COMPLETE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  7 

ditlon  soon  changed  and  naturally  the  system  changed 
with  it. 

It  has  been  the  fashion  of  most  writers  to  see  in  this  act 
of  18 1 7  only  fit  material  for  ridicule  and  sarcasm.  That 
its  verbiage  affords  good  excuse  for  such  treatment  cannot 
be  denied ;  but  it  contained  the  essential  principles  which 
are  embodied  in  the  present  school  system  of  this  State,  and 
which  have  been  incorporated  into  the  systems  of  many  of 
the  newer  States.  It  made  education  the  business  of  the 
State ;  it  provided  for  the  organization,  management,  and 
support  of  schools  of  all  grades  by  the  State ;  it  aimed  to 
secure  an  organic  connection  between  the  various  parts  of 
the  school  system.  Justice  Cooley  says  "The  plan  was  crude 
and  pedantic,  but  its  author  had  grasped  certain  principles 
which  were  of  the  very  highest  importance,  and  which  from 
this  time  became  incorporated  in  the  polity  of  the  Territory, 
and  subsequently  of  the  State  also.  In  every  State,  as  he 
believed,  the  education  of  the  people  is  important  to  the 
State  itself,  and  should  be  assumed  as  a  State  duty.  It 
should  not  be  restricted  to  elementary  education  merely, 
but  the  State  ought  to  place  within  the  reach  of  its  youth 
such  higher  education  also  as  is  commonly  given  by  the 
colleges  of  the  land.  And  this  education  should  be  non- 
sectarian."''' 

The  affairs  of  the  University  were  conducted  with  a  stiff 
formality  appropriate  to  a  great  institution,  but  Mr.  Mon- 
tieth  and  Father  Richard  appear  to  have  understood  that 
the  immediate  need  of  the  Territory  was  some  provision  for 
elementary  education.  They  accordingly  at  once  opened 
some  primary  schools  in  Detroit,  Monroe,  and  Mackinaw, 


*Cooley's  Michigan,  p.  310. 


8  STATUTE  OF  1821 

in  which  the  usual  branches  were  taught,  and  provided  for 
secondary  instruction  by  estabUshing  an  academy  in  Detroit 
in  which  EngHsh,  French,  Latin  and  "Greek  antiquities" 
were  to  be  taught.  It  was  directed  that  the  "Sacred  Scrip- 
tures shall  constitute  part  of  the  reading  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end  of  the  course."  A  university  building,  twenty- 
four  by  fifty  feet,  two  stories  in  height,  was  soon  erected 
with  funds  derived  mostly  from  private  subscriptions.  A 
school  conducted  on  the  Lancasterian  plan,  was  opened  in 
the- building  in  1818,  which  increased  during  the  year  from 
eleven  scholars  to  one  hundred  and  eighty-three.  A  tuition 
fee  was  charged  varying  from  one  dollar  to  three  dollars  and 
a  half  per  quarter,  but  in  many  cases  parents  failed  to  pay 
the  required  fee. 

In  1 82 1  the  act  of  181 7  was  superseded  by  a  statute, 
written  in  tlie  ordinary  English  language,  providing  for 
the  establishment  of  a  University  to  be  under  the  control 
of  a  board  of  twenty-one  trustees  of  which  the  Governor 
was  a  member  ex-oMcio.  The  idea  of  a  central  institution 
of  high  rank  and  of  subordinate  schools  of  various  grades 
under  the  same  management  was  retained ;  but  the  authority 
to  establish  and  manage  such  schools  was  vested  in  the  board 
of  trustees  and  not  in  the  faculty  of  the  University.  The 
trustees  were  empowered  to  organize  such  colleges,  aca- 
demies, and  schools  as  they  deemed  proper  and  to  apply 
funds  for  the  "promotion  of  literature  and  the  advancement 
of  useful  knowledge  within  the  territory."  All  public  edu- 
cation in  the  territory  remained  under  the  control  of  a 
single  central  board.  The  work  and  methods  of  the  new 
corporation  were  essentially  the  same  as  those  of  the  pre- 
vious body;  but  an  important  change  was  made  in  respect 


PATERNAL   GOVERNMENT  g 

to  funds  for  the  support  of  educational  work.  The  provis- 
ion for  a  general  tax  upon  the  property  of  the  Territory  was 
repealed  and  the  trustees  were  left  to  depend  upon  the 
income  from  lands  specially  devoted  to  educational  purposes 
and  upon  voluntary  contributions  from  private  individuals. 

No  change  was  made  in  the  educational  policy  or  educa- 
tional machinery  of  the  territory  until  1827.  The  people 
had  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  public  school  affairs,  or 
indeed  with  any  of  the  affairs  of  the  government,  until  1823. 
The  ordinance  of  1787,  which  was  in  effect  the  constitution 
of  the  territory  of  Michigan,  provided  that  when  there  were 
five  thousand  free  male  inhabitants  in  the  territory  they 
might  elect  a  legislative  assembly.  In  18 18  the  population 
had  increased  to  that  number,  and  the  question  was  sub- 
submitted  to  a  popular  vote,  whether  provision  should  be 
made  for  the  election  of  such  an  assembly,  and  it  was  voted 
down  by  a  large  majority. 

The  French  element  and  French  ideas  were  still  pre- 
dominant. The  time  for  public  schools  under  local  man- 
agement had  not  yet  come.  *'It  is  difficult  for  us  who  have 
been  educated  under  a  system  of  self-government  to  com- 
prehend the  feelings  of  those  who  .have  been  brought  up 
under  a  paternal  government.  The  brief  period  of  repre- 
sentation in  the  Assembly  of  the  Northwest  Territory  had 
not  habituated  the  French  settlers  to  our  notions.  And  the 
absence  of  any  local  system'  in  township  and  county  admin- 
istration left  them  entirely  ignorant  of  its  advantages. 
Those  who  reached  middle  age  before  the  people  in  the 
territory  became  entitled  to  vote  for  their  own  officers, 
were  not  always  pleased  with  the  change,  and  some  of  them 
who  survived  to  a  very  recent  period,  never  ceased  to  sigh 


10  VIEWS   OF  GOVERNOR   CASS 

for  the  good  old  days,  when  the  commanding  officer  was 
the  whole  government."* 

In  1823  Congress  modified  the  character  of  the  Terri- 
torial government,  transferring  the  legislative  authority 
to  the  Governor  and  a  Council  of  nine  members  paniaily 
elected  by  the  people,  and  in  1827  increased  the  number 
to  thirteen  fully  elected  by  the  people.  Provision  was  also 
made  for  the  division  of  the  Territory  into  townships  and 
for  the  election  of  township  officers.  The  way  was  now 
open  for  the  establishment  of  public  primary  schools  under 
the  control  of  local  authorities. 

Much  credit  is  due  to  Governer  Cass  for  his  earnest  and 
continued  efforts  to  induce  the  Council  to  make  immediate 
and  adequate  provision  for  the  organization  and  support 
of  schools.  In  his  message  to  the  first  Council,  in  1824, 
after  referring  to  the  funds  from  lands  donated  by  Con- 
gress for  educational  purposes,  he  said :  "whatever  beyond 
these  the  state  of  the  country  may  require  must  be  fur- 
nished by  the  application  of  individual  contribution,  or  by 
county  or  township  assessments  authorized  by  law.  The 
importance  of  this  subject  to  our  present  and  future  pros- 
perity must  be  too  well  appreciated  to  require  any  obser- 
vations from  me.  A  practical  and  well  digested  system, 
which  should  extend  to  all  the  advantages  of  education, 
would  be  of  inestimable  value  to  this  young  and  growing 
community.  A  more  acceptable  service  could  not  be  ren- 
dered to  our  fellow  citizens.  And  no  more  equable  tax 
can  be  levied  in  any  country  than  one  whose  application  is 
directed  to  preparing  its  citizens  for  appreciating  and  pre- 
serving  the    blessings    of    self-government."     The    Gover- 


*Cainpbell's  History  of  Michigan,  pp.  391-2. 


VIEWS   OF  GOVERNOR  CASS  n 

nor's  appeal,  however,  produced  no  action  from  the  Coun- 
cil at  that  session.  Public  sentiment  did  not  yet  make  any 
imperative  demand. 

At  the  next  session  he  returned  to  the  subject  of  educa- 
tion, and  even  more  earnestly  urged  the  Council  to  take 
some  action.  After  referring  to  the  additional  township 
of  land  donated  by  Congress,  and  to  the  authority  given 
to  locate  the  land  in  small  tracts,  the  Governor  said :  "When 
the  country  becomes  improved,  a  revenue  will  probably  be 
derived  from  these  reservations,  amounting  to  almost  one 
thirtieth  part  of  the  Territory,  adequate  to  the  great  pur- 
pose of  public  instruction.  But  until  then  we  shall  in 
vain  look  for  any  vigorous  or  systematic  effort  upon  this 
subject,  without  the  powerful  intervention  of  the  legisla- 
ture. *  *  *  The  wealthy  will  provide  for  their  own 
children,  but  those  who  are  less  fortunate  in  life  must  look 
to  their  country  for  assistance.  *  *  *  Jt  appears  to  me 
that  a  plan  must  be  devised,  which  will  not  press  too  heavily 
upon  the  means  of  the  country,  and  which  will  insure  a 
complete  portion  of  education  to  all  the  youth  of  the  Ter- 
ritory; and  I  recommend  the  subject  to  your  serious  con- 
sideration." The  importunity  and  zeal  of  the  Governor, 
rcen forced  doubtless  by  a  growing  public  sentiment  among 
ing  the  new  settlers  in  the  Territory,  at  length  induced  the 
Council  to  act.  A  law  was  enacted  in  1827  providing  for 
the  establishment  of  common  schools  throughout  the  Ter- 
ritory, and  making  such  schools  independent  of  the  con- 
trol of  the  trustees  of  the  University.  The  period  of  cen- 
tralization had  passed ;  local  democracy  was  to  have  its 
opportunity.  The  people  had  made  some  progress  in  the 
management  of  local  township  affairs  througli  officers  of 
their  own  choice. 


12  STATUTE  OE  1827 

The  statute  of  1827  was  essentially  a  reproduction  of  an 
early  school  law  of  the  Massachusetts  colony,  with  some 
features  borrowed  from  Nev/  York,  and  was  not  well 
adapted  to  the  condition  of  the  Territory  or  to  the  habits 
of  the  people ;  but  it  afforded  an  opportunity  for  a  begin- 
ning of  public  elementary  education  under  the  immediate 
control  of  the  people. 

This  act  required  every  township  containing  fifty  fam- 
ilies to  support  a  school,  in  which  "reading  ,writing,  orthog- 
raphy, arithmetic,  and  decent  behavior  should  be  taught." 
The  teaching  might  be  either  in  the  PVench  or  English  lan- 
guage. The  term  of  school  was  to  be  equivalent  to  six 
months ;  and  the  wording  of  the  statute  implied  that  this 
term  might  be  divided  into  two  or  more  periods,  and  that 
the  school  might  be  kept,  during  the  different  periods  in 
different  parts  of  the  township.  Townships  containing  a 
hundred  families  were  required  to  support  a  school  twelve- 
months, with  the  same  provision  as  to  periods  and  locations. 
Townships  with  a  hundred  and  fifty  families  were  required 
to  support  a  primary  school  for  six  months,  and  a  school 
of  a  little  more  advanced  character  for  twelve  months. 
This  last  school  was  required  to  have  a  teacher  who  could 
instruct  in  the  English  language.  Townships  containing 
two  hundred  families  were  required,  in  addition  to  schools 
previously  mentioned  to  employ  '*a  grammar  school-master 
of  good  morals,  well  instructed  in  the  Latin,  French,  and 
English  languages,"  for  a  period  equivalent  to  twelve 
months  in  the  year. 

The  grammar  school  of  that  day  was  equal  to  an  acad- 
emy or  high  school  of  moderate  grade,  and  offered  the 
advantages  of  secondary   education   including  preparation 


SCHOOL  OFFICERS 


13 


for  the  University.  This  statute  combined  with  the  act 
of  1 82 1,  gave  the  Territory,  on  paper,  a  tolerably  complete 
system  of  public  instruction. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  law  dealt  with  townships 
and  not  with  school  districts.  The  system  was  a  township 
system,  with  the  proviso  that  the  voters  of  the  township 
might  order  a  division  of  the  township  into  districts,  the 
local  affairs  of  such  districts  being  managed  by  a  board  of 
three  trustees  elected  annually.  The  township  school  offi- 
cers consisted  of  a  board  of  inspectors,  not  exceeding  five 
in  number,  who  examined  teachers  arid  exercised  a  general 
supervision  over  the  schools.  Public  sentiment  in  relation 
to  education  in  the  Territory  was  indicated  by  the  last 
section  of  the  law,  which  read :  ''Nothing  in  this  act  con- 
tained shall  be  so  construed  as  to  make  it  obligatory  on  any 
townships  of  this  Territory  to  employ  teachers  as  provided 
by  this  act ;  Provided  that  the  electors  at  the  annual  meet- 
ing, by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  all  the  electors  present  at 
such  meeting,  shall  determine  that  they  will  not  comply 
with  the  provisions  of  this  act  for  that  year."  It  is  appar- 
ent that  this  section  was  added  from  deference  ( i )  to  those 
who  preferred  church  and  private  schools,  and  (2)  to 
those  who  were  opposed  to  general  taxation  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools.  The  legislation  'of  the  next  year  shows 
that  serious  obstacles  were  encountered  in  the  efforts  to 
enforce  the  somewhat  complicated  provisions  of  this  law ; 
and  that  many  townships  had  neglected  to  comply  with  its 
requirements  without  the  safeguard  of  the  two-thirds  vote. 
On  the  whole  the  practical  workings  of  the  system  provided 
for  by  the  act  of  1827  were  unsatisfactory. 

To  the  Council  in  1828  Governor  Cass  said :     "I  am  ap- 


14  NEW   SCHOOL  LAW 

prehensive  that  our  present  laws  upon  the  subject  of  edu- 
cation are  entirely  too  complicated  for  practical  operation. 
Many  of  the  provisions  are  wise  and  just,  but  many  others 
do  not  seem  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  a  new  country. 
The  efficiency  of  a  system  entering-  so  much  into  the  rela- 
tions of  private  life,  must  depend  essentially  upon  its  sim- 
plicity, and  upon  its  adaptation  to  the  situation  and  opinions 
of  the  people." 

He  strongly  urged  a  reexamination  of  the  subject  and 
the  adoption  of  a  better  plan.  He  insisted  that  no  wiser 
or  juster  tax  could  be  levied  than  one  devoted  to  education. 
The  children  of  the  poor,  he  declared,  should  be  the  pupils 
of  the  State,  and  should  be  educated  at  the  expense  of  the 
state. 

In  accordance  with  the  recommendations  of  the  Gover- 
ner,  the  Council  passed  a  new  act  ''to  provide  for  and  reg- 
ulate common  schools."  This  law  definitely  established  the 
"district  system"  of  school  organization;  made  the  district 
officers  a  clerk,  treasurer,  collector,  and  three  directors 
who  were  the  executive  officers ;  provided  for  a  township 
board  of  ''Commissioners  of  Common  Schools,"  and  also 
a  board  of  "five  discreet  persons"  to  act  as  "Inspectors  of 
Common  schools."  The  first  board  arranged  the  school 
districts,  and  distributed  the  proceeds  derived  from  the 
rent  of  the  school  section.  The  basis  of  distribution  being 
the  number  of  scholars  in  each  district.  The  second  board 
examined  teachers  and  supervised  the  schools. 

The  law  also  provided  for  the  appointment  by  the  Gov- 
ernor of  a  "Superintendent  of  common  schools  for  the 
Territory."  This  officer  was  to  take  charee  of  the  school 
section  in  townships  where  the  people  neglected  to  mak^ 


THE  SUPPORT  OF  SCHOOLS 


15 


proper  provision  for  the  care  and  protection  of  this  land, 
and  to  report  annually  to  the  Council  the  condition  of 
school  lands,  the  amount  of  money  received  from  the  rent 
of  these,  the  number  of  scholars  in  the  public  schools ;  and 
whatever  else  he  deemed  of  importance. 

This  school  code  was  slightly  amended  by  successive 
Councils,  was  pretty  thoroughly  revised  in  1833,  but  the 
general  features  of  the  system  remained  unchanged  till  the 
close  of  the  Territorial  period.  It  will  be  of  interest  to 
examine  a  little  more  in  detail  some  features  of  the  Terri- 
torial school  system. 

PROVISION  FOR  THE  SUPPORT  OF  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS 

The  act  of  1827  provided  that  the  township  should  raise 
by  a  general  tax,  levied  and  collected  in  the  same  way  as 
other  taxes,  money  for  the  payment  of  the  wages  of 
teachers.  The  proceeds  of  this  tax  and  the  money  derived 
from  the  rent  of  the  school  section  (this  section  could  not 
at  that  time  be  sold)  were  distributed  to  the  districts  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  children  in  each  district  be- 
tween the  ages  of  five  and  fifteen  years.  Funds  for  build- 
ing school  houses,  keeping  them  in  repair,  providing  fuel 
and  other  necessaries,  were  raised  by  a  tax  voted,  levied, 
and  collected  by  the  district  itself.  At  first  the  tax  was 
levied  only  on  the  property  of  residents,  but  by  an  amend- 
ment two  years  later,  the  property  of  non-residents  was 
included. 

In  subsequent  revisions,  while  no  change  was  made  as 
to  funds  for  building  school  houses,  a  radical  and  unfor- 
tunate change  was  made  in  the  provisions   for  obtaining 


l6  THE  "RATE  BILL"   SYSTEM 

money  for  the  payment  of  teachers.  The  township  tax 
was  abandoned.  The  proceeds  from  the  school  lands  were 
divided  among  the  districts  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of 
children  actually  taught  in  the  schools.  The  remainder 
of  the  funds  needed  for  teachers'  wages  were  raised  by  the 
"rate  bill"  system.  Those  who  sent  children  to  school 
paid  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  sent  and  the 
days  of  attendance.  The  children  of  those  who  were  able 
to  pay  the  rate  bill  and  refused  or  neglected  to  do  so  were 
excluded  from  the  school.  The  tuition  of  children  whose 
parents  were  unable  to  meet  the  expense  was  provided  for 
by  a  general  tax  upon  the  property  of  the  district.  It  will 
be  observed  that  public  sentiment  in  the  Territory,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  school  laws,  had  undergone  a  progressive 
change.  At  first  the  central  Territorial  government  defray- 
ed the  expenses  of  education ;  a  little  later  the  township  pro- 
vided for  the  schooling  of  its  children ;  finally  it  was  deter- 
mined that  parents  should  pay  for  the  instruction  of  their 
own  children,  if  able  to  do  so.  The  State,  or  the  public, 
provided  school  houses  and  other  necessary  facilities  but 
nothing  more,  except  in  case  of  the  indigent.  Extreme  cen- 
tralization had  given  way  to  extreme  individualism. 

PROVISIONS   AS   TO   TEACHERS. 

Under  the  statute  of  1817  the  central  Territorial  board 
employed  teachers  and  determined  their  qualifications  with- 
out any  restrictions  or  legal  limitations.  Under  the  later 
laws  the  township  board  of  school  Inspectors  examined  the 
teachers  of  the  comm.on  schools,  and  gave  certificates  valid 
for  one  year.     The   nature   of  the   examination   can   only 


SUMMARY  OF  CONDITIONS  17 

be  inferred  from  existing  conditions  and  from  the  branches 
of  study  which  they  were  expected  to  teach.  The  Inspec- 
tors were  required  to  certify  to  their  competency  and  moral 
character.  By  one  of  the  early  statutes  persons  presuming 
to  teach  a  public  school  without  the  Inspector's  certificate 
were  liable  to  a  fine  of  two  hundred  dollars,  one-half  of 
which  went  to  the  informer,  the  other  half  to  the  fund  for 
the  poor.  This  provision  was  eliminated  in  the  next  revis- 
ion of  the  school  laws,  and  school  officers  were  forbidden 
to  employ  teachers  not  having  proper  certificates.  Teachers 
were  to  report  under  oath,  if  those  concerned  required  this, 
a  full  statement  of  the  attendance  of  scholars  and  names 
of  parents. 

SUMMARY  OF  CONDITIONS. 

Educational  conditions  at  the  close  of  the  Territorial  per- 
iod were  essentially  the  following: 

1.  Provision  for  higher  education  by  a  University,  exist- 
ing in  the  statute  and  in  anticipation,  with  a  prospective 
endowment  from  seventy-two  sections  of  land  donated  by 
Congress  and  three  sections  given  by  certain  Indian  tribes. 

2.  Provision  for  secondary  education  by  means  of 
schools  to  be  established  and  supported  by  the  trustees  of 
the  University. 

3.  Provision  for  elementary  schools,  to  be  held  at  least 
three  months  in  the  year,  controlled  and  supported  by  the 
various  school  districts,  with  the  aid  derived  from  the 
rents  of  the  school  section. 

4.  Provision  for  a  Territorial  ''Superintendent  of  Com- 
mon Schools,"  appointed  by  the  Governor  with  the  consent. 


l8  JUSTICE  COOLEY'S  DESCRIPTION 

of  the  legislative  Council,  whose  duties  were  similar  to 
those  of  the  first  State  Superintendent. 

The  main  features  of  the  Territorial  system  were  incor- 
porated, with  some  changes  and  improvements,  into  the 
State  system  by  Superintendent  Pierce. 

The  actual  state  of  elementary  education  and  of  educa- 
tional affairs,  as  late  as  1836,  is  well  pictured  by  Justice 
Thomas  M.  Cooley.  -^The  schools  at  the  time  State  gov- 
ernment was  established  were  still  very  primitive  affairs. 
There  were  as  yet  no  professional  teachers.  Some  farmer 
or  mechanic,  or  perhaps  a  grown-up  son  or  daughter,  who 
had  had  the  advantages  of  the  common  schools  of  New 
York  or  New  England,  offered  his  or  her  services  as  teacher 
during  the  dull  season  of  regular  employment,  and  consent- 
ed to  take  as  wages  such  sum  as  the  district  could  afford  to 
pay.  A  summer  school  taught  by  a  woman,  who  would 
be  paid  vsix  or  eight  dollars  a  month,  and  a  winter  school 
taught  by  a  man,  whose  compensation  was  twice  as  great, 
was  what  was  generally  provided  for.  But  in  addition  to 
wages  the  teacher  received  his  board,  "boarding  round" 
among  the  patrons  of  the  school,  and  remaining  with  each 
a  number  of  days  determined  by  the  number  of  pupils  sent 
to  school.  If  we  shall  incline  to  visit  one  of  these  schools 
in  the  newer  portion  of  the  State  we  shall  be  likely  to  find 
it  housed  in  a  log  structure,  covered  with  bark,  imperfectly 
plastered  between  the  logs  to  exclude  the  cold,  and  still 
more  imperfectly  warmed  by  an  open  fire-place  or  by  a  box 
stove,  for  which  fuel  is  provided,  as  the  board  for  the  teacher 
is,  by  proportional  contributions.  The  seats  for  the  pupils 
may  be  of  slabs  set  on  legs ;  the  desks  may  be  other  slabs 
Jaid  upon  supports  fixed  to  the  logs  which  constitute  the 


THE  PRIMITIVE  SCHOOL 


19 


sides  of  the  room.  The  school  books  are  miscellaneous, 
and  consist  largely  of  those  brought  by  the  parents  when 
emigrating  to  the  territory.  Those  who  write  must  rule 
their  paper  with  pencils,  of  their  own  manufacture,  and 
the  master  will  make  pens  for  them  from  the  goose-quill. 
For  the  most  part  the  ink  is  of  home  manufacture.  There 
are  no  globes :  no  means  of  illustration ;  not  even  a  black- 
board. *  *  *  Such  in  many  cases  was  the  Michigan 
school.  Better  school  buildings  were  now  springing  up, 
but  as  a  rule  nothing  could  seem  more  dreary  or  dispiriting 
than  the  average  school  district.  Nevertheless,  many  an 
intellect  received  a  quickening  in  those  schools  which  fitted 
it  for  a  life  of  useful  and  honorable  activity.  The  new 
settlers  made  such  provision  for  the  education  of  their  chil- 
dren as  was  possible  under  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
were  placed,  and  the  fruits  of  their  labors  and  sacrifices  in 
this  direction  were  in  many  cases  surprising."* 


'Cooley's  Michigan,  pp.  315-317. 


CHAPTER  11. 
CONSTITUTIONAL  PROVISIONS  AS  TO  EDUCATION. 

Michigan  owes  a  large  debt  of  gratitude  to  Isaac  E. 
Crary  and  John  D.  Pie:rci:.  More  than  any  other  two  men, 
they  were  instrumental  in  laying  the  foundations  of  her 
educational  system,  and  in  giving  direction  to  its  early  devel- 
opment. By  native  endowments  and  by  academic  culture 
they  were  admirably  fitted  for  the  work.  Mr.  Crary  was 
a  native  of  Connecticut,  born  in  1804.  He  graduated  from 
Washington  (now  Trinity)  college  at  Harford  in  its  first 
class,  1829,  with  the  highest  honors.  He  came  to  Michigan 
in  1832,  was  delegate  to  Congress  from  the  Territory,  and 
the  first  Representative  of  the  State  in  Congress.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  was  a  resident  of  Marshall  in  Calhoun  county. 

John  D.  Pierce  was  a  native  of  New  Hampshire,  born  in 
1797.  He  graduated  from  Brown  University,  Rhode  Island, 
with  an  excellent  reputation  as  a  scholar.  In  1822.  While 
in  college  he  taught  school  three  months  in  each  year  to 
secure  means  to  defray  his  expenses.  After  leaving  college 
he  studied  one  year  in  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
then  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Oneida  county,  New  York, 
where  he  remained  four  years.  He  was  Principal  of  an 
academy  in  Goshen,  Connecticut,  during  the  following  year. 
In  the  spring  of  1831  he  was  commissioned  by  the  Congre- 
gational Home  Mission  Society  to  act  as  a  missionary  either 
in  Illinois  or  Michigan  as  he  might  choose.  In  July  of 
that  year  he  located  in  Marshall,  Michigan,  and  continued 

20 


INCEPTION  OF  THE  SCHOOI.  SYSTEM  2I 

his  missionary  labors  until  he  was  appointed  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  in  1836.  A  year  after  he  settled  in 
Marshall,  Mr.  Crary  became  a  resident  of  the  same  place. 
Circumstances  brought  them  into  close  relationship,  and 
into  intimate  acquaintance  and  friendship.  Like  most  of 
the  men  in  the  Territory  at  that  period  they  were  both  young 
and  filled  with  enthusiasm  and  hopefulness  of  that  time  of 
life,  and  with  the  spirit  of  enterprise  which  characterized 
the  new-comers  in  the  Territory.  It  was  the  day  of  great 
expectations  and  of  far-reaching  plans. 

Late  in  his  life,  writing  of  that  period,  Mr.  Pierce  said, 
in  substance,  ''when  I  came  to  Michigan,  in  1831,  the  census 
just  taken,  including  what  is  now  the  State  of  Wisconsin, 
showed  a  population  of  32,000 ;  of  this  number  30,000  were 
in  Michigan  proper.  The  census  was  again  taken  in  1834, 
and  the  population  had  increased  to  87,000.  Soon  after, 
the  Legislative  Council  of  the  Territory  provided  for  a 
convention  to  frame  a  State  constitution,  the  time  of  meet- 
ing being  May,  1835,  ^^^^  the  place  Detroit.  Naturally  the 
coming  convention  and  the  new  constitution  were  subjects 
of  much  earnest  discussion.  Mr.  Pierce  writes :  "It  was 
at  this  period  in  our  history  that  the  Michigan  School  Sys- 
tem had  its  inception  and  origin.  Gen.  Isaac  E.  Crary,  a 
graduate  of  an  Eastern  college,  and  a  warm  friend  of  edu- 
cation, was  for  a  year  or  two  an  inmate  of  my  house.  The 
condition  and  prospects  of  our  new  State  were  often  the 
subject  of  discussion,  and  especially  of  schools  of  various 
grades,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest.  About  this  time. 
Cousin's  report  on  the  Prussian  system,  made  to  the  French 
minister  of  Public  Instruction,  came  into  my  hands,  and 
was  read  with  much  interest.     Sitting  one  pleasant  after- 


22  CONSTITUTION  OF   1835 

noon  upon  a  log,  on  the  hill  north  of  where  the  Court  House 
at  Marshall  now  stands,  Gen.  Crary  and  myself  discussed, 
for  a  long  time,  the  fundamental  principles  which  were 
deemed  important  for  the  convention  to  adopt,  in  laying  the 
foundation  of  a  new  State.  The  subject  of  education  was 
a  theme  of  especial  interest.  It  was  agreed,  if  possible,  that 
it  should  make  a  distinct  branch  of  the  government,  and  that 
the  constitution  ought  to  provide  for  an  officer  who  should 
have  this  whole  matter  in  charge,  and  thus  keep  its  impor- 
tance perpetually  before  the  public  mind." 

CONVENTION  AND  CONSTITUTION  OF  1835. 

Mr.  Crary  was  elected  as  a  delegate  to  the  convention 
and  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  committee  on  education. 
The  ideas  evolved  in  the  discussion  on  the  log  in  Marshall, 
took  form  in  the  article  on  education  in  the  constitution. 
Unfortunately  the  prceedings  and  debates  of  this  conven- 
tion have  not  been  preserved  in  such  form  as  to  be  acces- 
sible. Superintendent  Shearman,  in  his  report  for  1852, 
writes :  "There  was  no  debate  in  relation  to  the  importance 
of  making  suitable  provision  for  Public  Instruction.  A 
committee  was  appointed  to  draft  an  article,  of  which  Isaac 
E.  Crary  of  Calhoun,  was  chairman.  It  was  reported  on 
the  second  day  of  June,  1835,  and  was  accepted  substantially 
as -it  came  from  the  hands  of  the  committee.  As  reported 
to  the  convention,  the  article  provided  for  a  Secretary  of 
Public  Instruction.  When  the  article  came  up  in  the  con- 
vention, Judge  Woodbridge  remarked  that  he  had  read  it, 
and  although  it  was  new  and  not  to  be  found  in  any  other 
constitution,  yet  he  was  inclined  to  give  it  his  support,  if 


Educational  provisions 


23 


the  chairman  of  the  committee  would  consent  to  make  one 
alteration,  viz :  to  strike  out  the  word  Secretary,  and  insert 
Superintendent.  The  chairman  remarked  that  the  report 
was  beyond  his  control,  but  if  there  was  no  objection  on 
the  part  of  any  member  of  the  convention,  in  order  to  secure 
the  support  of  the  member  from  Wayne,  he  would  readily 
consent  to  the  change.  The  change  was  accordingly  made. 
The  article,  as  reported,  provided  for  a  library  in  each  school 
district.  This  was  amended  in  convention,  by  the  casting 
vote  of  the  President,  by  striking  out  the  words  school  dis- 
trict, and  inserting  township.  The  article  being  referred 
to  the  committee  on  phraseology  and  revision,  the  words 
at  least,  were  inserted,  where  they  appeared  in  the  old  con- 
stitution ;  and  the  article  thus  passed,  secured  by  this  slight 
addition  and  change,  the  establishment,  by  subsequent  legis- 
lation, of  libraries  in  every  school  district."  The  following 
is  the  article  as  adopted. 

EDUCATION. 

1.  "The  Governor  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Legislature,  in  joint  vote,  shall 
appoint  a  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  who.  shall 
hold  his  office  for  two  years,  and  whose  duties  shall  be  pre- 
scribed by  law. 

2.  The  Legislature  shall  encourage,  by  all  suitable  means, 
the  promotion  of  intellectual,  scientific,  and  agricultural 
improvement.  The  proceeds  of  all  lands  that  have  been 
or  hereafter  may  be  granted  by  the  United  States  to  this 
State  for  the  support  of  schools,  which  shall  hereafter  be 
sold  or  disposed  of,  shall  be  and  remain  a  perpetual  fund; 


24  CONSTITUTIONAL  PROVISIONS 

the  interest  of  which,  together  with  the  rents  of  all  such 
unsold  lands,  shall  be  inviolably  appropriated  to  the  sup- 
port of  schools  throughout  the  State. 

3.  The  Legislature  shall  provide  for  a  system  of  common 
schools  by  which  a  school  shall  be  kept  up  and  supported  in 
each  school  district  at  least  three  months  in  every  year ;  and 
any  school  district  neglecting  to  keep  Up  and  support  a 
school  may  be  deprived  of  its  equal  proportion  of  the  inter- 
est of  the  public  fund. 

4.  As  soon  as  the  circumstances  of  the  State  will  per- 
mit, the  Legislature  shall  provide  for  the  establishment  of 
libraries;  one  at  least  in  each  township;  and  the  money 
which  shall  be  paid  by  persons  as  an  equivalent  for  exemp- 
tion from  military  duty,  and  the  clear  proceeds  of  all  fines 
assessed  in  the  several  counties  for  any  breach  of  the  penal 
laws,  shall  be  exclusively  applied  for  the  support  of  said 
libraries. 

5.  The  Legislature  shall  take  measures  for  the  protec- 
tion, improvement  or  other  disposition  of  such  lands  as  have 
been  or  may  hereafter  be  reserved  or  granted  by  the  United 
States  to  this  State  for  the  support  of  a  University ;  and  the 
funds  accruing  from  the  rents  or  sale  of  such  lands,  or 
from  any  other  source  for  the  purpose  aforesaid,  shall  be 
and  remain  a  permanent  fund  for  the  support  of  said  Uni- 
versity, with  such  branches  as  the  public  convenience  may 
hereafter  demand,  for  the  promotion  of  literature,  the  arts 
and  sciences,  and  as  may  be  authorized  by  the  terms  of  such 
grant;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Legislature,  as  soon 
as  may  be,  to  provide  effectual  means  for  the  improvement 
and  permanent  security  of  the  funds  of  said  University." 

Among  the  amendments  to  the  constitution  of  1835,  was 


I 


CONSTITUTION    OF    1850        •  .     25 

one  submitted  to  the  people  and  ratified  at  the  election  in 
November,  1849,  providing  for  the  election  of  certain  State 
officers,  and  among  these  the  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, by  the  people.  This  amendment  was  incorpor- 
ated into  the  constitution  of  1850.  (Report  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Convention  of  1850,  page  XXI.) 

CONVENTION    AND    CONSTITUTION    OF    1850. 

Isaac  E.  Crary  and  John  D.  Pierci:  were  both  members 
from  Calhoun  county,  of  the  Convention  for  the  revision  of 
the  constitution  in  1850,  and  Mr.  Pierce  was  a  member  of 
the  committee  on  education.  This  siibject  received  a  large 
share  of  attention,  and  the  published  debates  give  evidence 
of  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  upon  several  features 
of  the  educational  system.  The  report  of  the  committee 
did  not,  as  in  the  convention  of  1835,  receive  approval  and 
adoption  without  discussion.  Conditions  had  changed  dur- 
ing the  intervening  period  and  it  was  not  easy  to  secure 
unanimity  of  action  upon  some  matters  of  vital  importance 
to  the  value  and  efficiency  of  the  school  system.  No  extend- 
ed report  of  the  discussion  can  be  given,  but  the  topics  can 
be  indicated  upon  which  the  greatest  diversity  of  opmion 
appeared. 

The  first  section  of  the  committee's  report,  providing  for 
a  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  to  be  elected  by  the 
people,  was  adopted  with  but  little  debate.  A  feeble  attempt 
was  made  to  attach  the  superintendency  as  an  appendage 
to  one  of  the  other  State  offices,  as  had  been  done  in  New 
York,  but  the  proposition  received  very  little  support.  Both 
Mr.   Crary   and   Mr.   Pierce   spoke   strongly   and   at  some 


26       .  SUBJECTS   OF  DEBATE 

length,  in  favor  of  continuing  the  office  in  its  previous  form, 
and  the  general  sentiment  of  the  convention  was  in  the  same 
direction. 

The  questions  which  provoked  the  most  extended  debate 
and  revealed  the  widest  diversity  of  views  were :  Shall  the 
primary  schools  be  made  absolutely  free  for  a  certain  num- 
ber of  months  in  the  year,  and,  if  so,  shall  they  be  made  free 
immediately  or  after  some  specified  date?  How  shall  the 
necessary  funds  be  raised  for  the  support  of  these  schools? 
Shall  it  be  by  a  general  State  tax,  by  township  tax,  or  by  a 
district  tax?  Upon  what  basis  shall  the  proceeds  of  the 
school  fund  and  the  money  derived  from  State  taxation  be. 
distributed  to  the  various  districts?  Shall  the  distribution 
be  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  children  of  school  age  in 
the  District  ?  or  shall  it  be  upon  the  basis  of  the  whole  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  in  the  district?  or  shall  each  township 
and  district  receive  back  a  sum  just  equal  to  the  amount  of 
taxes  which  it  has  paid?  or  can  some  other  basis  be  found? 
After  protracted  discussion  and  many  fruitless  efforts  to 
come  to  some  agreement,  the  question  of  the  basis  of  distri- 
bution was  left  to  be  determined  by  the  Legislature. 

The  question  of  free  schools  was  very  earnestly  debated, 
and  the  debates  revealed  a  wide  diversity  of  views.  Three 
unequal  parties  upon  this  question  existed  in  the  Conven- 
tion. A  few  members  were  opposed  to  free  schools  both 
from  principle  and  policy.  The  arguments  employed  by 
these  gentlement  were,  in  substance,  the  injustice  of  taxing 
one  man  to  pay  for  the  education  of  another  man's  children, 
and  the  claim  that  people  would  take  little  interest  in  the 
education  of  their  children  if  such  education  cost  them 
nothing ;  that  people  generally  valued  a  thing  in  proportion 


AS  TO  FREE  SCHOOLS  27 

to  its  cost.  Arguments  of  this  sort  were  frequently  heard 
fifty  years  ago  even  from  teachers  and  other  good  friends 
of  education. 

Another  small  party  urged  strongly  that  the  constitution 
should  provide  for  free  schools  immediately ;  that  this  ques- 
tions should  not  be  left  to  the  decision  of  some  future  legis- 
lative body.  It  was  urged,  in  substance,  that  the  State,  by 
some  mode  of  taxation,  was  bound  to  provide  for  the  edu- 
cation of  all  the  children  within  its  boundaries ;  that  taxation 
for  this  purpose  was  not  taxing  one  man  to  educate  another 
man's  children,  but  was  taxing  the  property  of  the  State  to 
provide  for  its  own  protection  and  safety  through  the  intel- 
ligence and  virtue  of  its  present  and  future  citizens.  Be- 
tween these  two  extremes  was  a  larger  party,  probably  a 
majority  of  the  convention,  who  argued  that  the  constitu- 
tion should  simply  affirm  the  principle  of  free  schools,  the 
desirability  of  such  schools  when  circumstances  would  per- 
mit, and  leave  the  Legislature  to  determine  when  circum- 
stances would  justify  action  making  them  free.  The  dis- 
cussions upon  this  topic  were  long  and  earnest,  and  resulted 
in  the  compromise  which  appears  in  the  educational  article, 
requiring  the  Legislature  within  five  years  "to  provide  for 
and  establish  a  system  of  primary  schools,  whereby  a  school 
shall  be  kept  without  charge  for  tuition  at  least  three  months 
in  each  year,  in  every  school  district  in  the  State."  The 
limit  of  three  months  was  unsatisfactory  to  the  friends  of 
free  schools,  but  they  accepted  it  on  the  principle  that  "half 
a  loaf  is  better  than  no  bread  at  all."  They  trusted  to  an 
improved  public  sentiment  to  demand,  in  the  near  future, 
a  longer  term  than  three  months.  How  successive  legis- 
latures for  several  years,  disregarded  the  mandate  of  the 
constitution  is  a  matter  of  history  not  flattering  to  State 


28  te:aching  languages 

pride  or  even  a  comfortable  degree  of  self-respect. 

The  question  of  allowing  other  languages  than  the  Eng- 
lish to  be  taught  in  the  elementary  public  schools  occasioned 
considerable  debate.  The  original  report  of  the  committee 
on  education  read :  "'The  English  language,  and  no  other, 
shall  be  taught  in  such  schools."  The  discussion  brought 
out  the  fact  that  in  some  of  the  districts  the  English  lan- 
guage was  not  used,  all  instruction  and  exercises  being  in 
French  or  German.  To  remedy  the  undesirable  condition 
it  was  proposed  to  make  the  clause  read:  ''The  English 
language  shall  be  taught  in  all  the  primary  schools  of  this 
State."  This  form  was  unsatisfactory,  since  it  only  made 
it  obligatory  that  the  English  language  should  be  taught. 
The  general  instruction  in  the  school  might  still  be  carried 
on  in  another  language,  and  the  school  not  be  really  an 
English  school.  The  form  found  in  the  constitution  was 
finally  adopted  after  a  free  exchange  of  opinions.  It  is 
clear  enough  from  the  whole  tenor  of  proceedings  that  it 
was  not  the  intention  of  the  constitution  to  exclude  the 
teaching  of  other  languages,  but  to  insist  upon  the  use 
of  English  in  the  processes  of  instruction.  It  was  distinctly 
stated  in  the  debates  that  the  amendment  does  not  declare 
that  no  other  language  shall  be  taught;  but  it  makes  the 
English  language  the  medium  of  instruction.  It  was  said: 
"Large  numbers  of  emigrants  are  locating  in  the  State; 
it  is  the  true  policy  of  the  State  to  have  them  acquire  the 
use  of  the  English  language  in  the  shortest  period 
practicable.  There  is  an  anxiety  on  the  part  of  these  emi- 
grants to  preserve  their  own  language  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  English.     This  is  an  evil  that  should  be  remedied." 

One  of  the  most  extended  discussions  occurred  upon  the 


MODES  OF  TAXATION 


29 


question  of  the  method  of  taxation  to  raise  money  for  the 
support  of  the  primary  schools.  Three  methods  were 
urged;  (i)  a  general  State  tax,  (2)  a  tax  levied  by  the 
township,  (3)  taxes  levied  by  the  school  district,  which 
might  involve  the  rate  bill.  The  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  each  method  were  very  fully  presented,  and  the 
debates,  as  a  whole,  are  decidedly  interesting.  No  agree- 
ment could  be  reached  and  the  question  was  left  to  be  con- 
sidered and  answered  by  future  Legislatures.  It  is  still  an 
unsolved  problem.  The  subject  of  an  Agricultural  college 
came  in  for  extended  consideration,  as  also  the  question 
of  the  disposition  of  specific  taxes. 

A  vigorous  and  protracted  debate  took  place  upon  the 
question,  whether  the  Regents  of  the  University  should 
be  appointed  by  the  Governor  with  the  consent  of  the 
Senate  or  the  Legislature,  or  should  be  elected  by  the  people. 
At  one  stage  of  the  Convention  the  proposition  that  they 
should  be  nominated  by  the  Governor  and  appointed  by 
the  Legislature  in  joint  sessions,  was  adopted.  The  prop- 
osition was  made  and  advocated  with  apparent  seriousness 
to  have  the  Professors  in  the  University  also  elected  by  the 
people. 

The  references  to  the  debates  in  the  Convention  have  been 
made  to  indicate  the  general  sentiment  of  the  leading  men 
of  the  State  upon  educational  affairs  at  that  period.  The 
differences  between  the  article  on  education  in  the  consti- 
tution of  1835  and  that  of  1850  may  be  studied  with  profit 
by  the  student  of  educational  history.  The  changes  brought 
about  by  the  development  of  educational  institutions,  and 
of  the  State  generally,  during  fifteen  years  will  be  readily 
observed.     The  democratic  tendencies  of  the  age  are  seen 


30  EDUCATIONAL  ARTICLE 

in  making  all  State  officers  elected  by  the  sovereign  people, 
and  in  the  short  terms  of  office  given  to  these  officials.  The 
distrust  of  the  legislative  body  is  indicated  by  the  large 
amount  of  legislation  introduced  into  the  constitution  itself. 
Two  amendments  have  since  been  adopted  affecting  the 
article  on  education,  one  providing  for  the  election  of  a 
board  of  eight  regents  without  reference  to  judicial  dis- 
tricts, with  a  term  of  eight  years ;  and  the  other  providing 
that  fines  collected  for  breaches  of  the  penal  statutes  may 
be  used  for  other  than  library  purposes.  The  article  is 
given  as  amended. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  1850. 

ARTICLE  XIII. 

EDUCATION. 

'*Se:ction  I.  The  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
shall  have  the  general  supervision  of  public  instruction,  and 
his  duties  shall  be  prescribed  by  law. 

vSec.  2.  The  proceeds  from  the  sales  of  all  lands  that 
have  been  or  hereafter  may  be  granted  by  the  United  States 
to  the  State  for  educational  purposes,  and  the  proceeds  of 
all  lands  or  other  property  given  by  individuals,  or  appro- 
priated by  the  State  for  like  purposes,  shall  be  and  remain 
a  perpetual  fund,  the  interest  and  income  of  which,  together 
with  the  rents  of  all  such  lands  as  may  remain  unsold,  shall  be 
inviolably  appropriated  and  annually  applied  to  the  specific 
objects  of  the  original  gift,  grant,  or  appropriation. 

Se:c.  3.     All  lands,  the  titles  to  which  shall  fail  from  a 


EDUCATIONAL  ARTICLE 


31 


defect  of  heirs,  shall  escheat  to  the  State;  and  the  interest 
on  the  clear  proceeds  from  the  sales  thereof  shall  be  appro- 
priated exclusively  to  the  support  of  primary  schools. 

Skc.  4.  The  legislature  shall,  within  five  years  from  the 
adoption  of  this  constitution,  provide  for  and  establish  a 
system  of  primary  schools,  whereby  a  school  shall  be  kept 
without  charge  for  tuition,  at  least  three  months  in  each 
year,  in  every  school  district  in  the  State ;  and  all  instruc- 
tion in  said  schools  shall  be  conducted  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. 

Skc.  5.  A  school  shall  be  maintained  in  each  school  dis- 
trict at  least  three  months  in  each  year.  Any  school  dis- 
trict neglecting  to  maintain  such  school  shall  be  deprived 
for  the  ensuing  year  of  its  proportion  of  the  income  of  the 
primary  school  fund,  and  of  all  funds  arising  from  taxes 
for  the  support  of  schools. 

Sec.  6.  There  shall  be  elected  in  the  year  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  sixty-three,  at  the  time  of  the  election  of  a  justice 
of  the  supreme  court,  eight  regents  of  the  university,  two 
of  whom  shall  hold  their  office  for  two  years,  two  for  four 
years,  two  for  six  years,  and  two  for  eight  years.  They 
shall  enter  upon  the  duties  of  their  office  on  the  first  of  Jan- 
uary next  succeeding  their  election.  At  every  regular  elec- 
tion of  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  thereafter,  there  shall 
be  elected  two  regents,  whose  term  of  office  shall  be  eight 
years.  When  a  vacancy  shall  occur  in  the  office  of  regent, 
it  shall  be  filled  by  appointment  of  the  governor.  The 
regents  thus  elected  shall  constitute  the  board  of  regents  of 
the  University  of  Michigan.* 


*Amendment  agreed  to  by  the  legislature  of  1861,  and  approved 
by  the  people  in  1862. 


32  EDUCATIONAL  ARTICLE 

Sec.  7.  The  regents  of  the  university,  and  their  succes- 
sors in  office,  shall  continue  to  constitute  the  body  corporate 
known  by  the  name  and  title  of  "The  regents  of  the  univer- 
sity of  Michigan." 

Sec.  8.  The  regents  of  the  university  shall,  at  their  first 
annual  meeting,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  may  be,  elect  a 
president  of  the  university,  who  shall  be  ex  officio  a  member 
of  their  board,  v/ith  the  privilege  of  speaking,  but  not  of 
voting.  He  shall  preside  at  the  meetings  of  the  regents, 
and  be  the  principal  executive  officer  of  the  university.  The 
board  of  regents  shall  have  the  general  supervision  of  the 
university,  and  the  direction  and  control  of  all  expenditures 
from  the  university  interest  fund. 

Sec.  9.  There  shall  be  elected  at  the  general  election  in 
the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty-two,  three 
members  of  a  State  board  of  education ;  one  for  two  years, 
one  for  four  years,  and  one  for  six  years ;  and  at  each  suc- 
ceeding biennial  election  there  shall  be  elected  one  member 
of  such  board,  who  shall  hold  his  office  for  six  years.  The 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  shall  be  ex  officio  a 
member  and  secretary  of  such  board.  The  board  shall  have 
the  general  supervision  of  the  State  normal  school,  and 
their  duties  shall  be  prescribed  by  law. 

SE^.  10.  Institutions  for  the  benefit  of  those  inhabitants 
who  are  deaf,  dumib,  blind,  or  insane,  shall  always  be  fos- 
tered and  supported. 

Sec.  II.  The  legislature  shall  encourage  the  promotion 
of  intellectual,  scientific,  and  agricultural  improvement ;  and 
shall,  as  soon  as  practicable,  provide  for  the  establishment 
of  an  agricultural  school.  The  legislature  may  appropriate 
the  twenty-two  sections  of  salt  spring  lands  now  unappro- 


CONSTITUTIONAL   PROVISIONS 


33 


priated,  or  the  money  arising  from  the  sale  of  the  same, 
where  such  lands  have  been  .already  sold,  and  any  land 
which  may  hereafter  be  granted  or  appropriated  for  such 
purpose,  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  such  school, 
and  may  make  the  same  a  branch  of  the  university,  for  in- 
struction in  agriculture  and  the  natural  sciences  connected 
therewith,  and  place  the  same  under  the  supervision  of  the 
regents  of  the  university. 

Sec.  12.  The  legislature  shall  also  provide  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  at  least  one  library  in  each  township  and  city; 
and  all  fines  assessed  and  collected  in  the  several  counties 
and  townships  for  any  breach  of  he  penal  laws,  shall  be 
exclusively  applied  to  the  support  of  such  libraries,  unless 
otherwise  ordered  by  the  township  board  of  any  township, 
or  the  board  of  education  of  any  city :  Provided,  That  in  no 
case  shall  such  fines  be  used  for  other  than  library  or  school 
purposes."* 

ARTICLE  XIV. 
FINANCE  AND  TAXATION. 

SiXTiON  I.  "All  Specific  State  taxes,  except  those  re- 
ceived from  the  mining  companies  of  the  upper  peninsula, 
shall  be  applied  in  paying  the  interest  upon  the  primary 
school,  university,  and  other  educational  funds,  and  the 
interest  and  principal  of  the  State  debt,  in  the  order  herein 
recited,  until  the  extinguishment  of  the  State  debt,  other 
than  the  amounts  due  to  educational  funds,  when  such  spe- 
cific taxes  shail  be  added  to  and  constitute  a  part  of  the 


*  Amendment  agreed  to  by  the  legislature  of  1879,  and  approved 
by  the  people  in  1881. 


34  CONSTITUTIONAL  PROVISIONS 

primary  school  interest  fund.  The  Legislature  shall  pro- 
vide for  an  annual  tax,  sufficient  with  other  resources,  to 
pay  the  estimated  expenses  of  the  State  government,  the 
interest  of  the  State  debt,  and  such  deficiency  as  may  occur 
in  the  resources." 


CHAPTER  HI. 

THE  STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 

PRELIMINARY  DISCUSSION. 

John  D.  Pierce,  familiarly  known  in  Michigan  as  "Father 
Pierce,"  was  appointed  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion on  July  26,  1836,  having  been  nominated  by  Governor 
Mason  and  unanimously  confirmed  by  the  Legislature.  He 
was  instructed  to  report,  at  the  next  session  of  the  Legis- 
lature to  be  held  in  January  of  1837,  "a  system  of  commork 
schools  and  a  plan  for  a  university  and  its  branches."  The 
report  was  prepared  with  great  care,  and  presented  in 
accordance  with  the  instructions.  Naturally  and  properly, 
before  giving  the  details  of  the  system  and  the  plan,  he  dis- 
cussed, with  considerable  fulness,  some  of  the  fundamental 
principles  upon  which  a  system  of  public  education  in  a  new, 
free  State  should  be  based,  and  the  ends  which  it  should 
seek  to  accomplish.  The  first  and  second  reports  of  Super- 
intendent Pierce  may,  without  impropriety,  be  regarded  as 
the  educational  constitution  of  the  Commonwealth ;  and,  in 
justice  to  him  and  his  work,  a  history  of  public  education 
in  the  State  should  begin  with  at  least  a  resume  of  his 
views  and  purposes  and  of  the  considerations  by  which  he 
supported  them.  Some  of  his  recommendations  have  been 
adversely  criticised,  in  certain  quarters,  through  misappre- 
hension and  from  ignorance  of  the  actual  condition  of  affairs 
at  that  time. 

35 


36        IMPORTANCE  OF  EDUCATION 

In  the  preparation  of  his  first  reports,  and  in  several  of 
his  recommendations,  Mr.  Pierce  was  obviously  influenced 
by  the  educational  conditions  existing  at  the  close  of  the 
Territorial  period,  and  also  by  an  intelligent  and  earnest 
study  of  the  Prussian  system  of  education  as  described  in 
the  able  report  of  M.  Cousin  which  had  then  been  recently 
published.  He  moreover  took  pains  to  obtain  the  opinions 
and  assistance  of  a  number  of  the  most  eminent  educators 
of  the  east.  x\s  a  basis  for  the  recommendations  which 
he  proposed  to  make,  he  began  by  calling  attention  to  the 
vital  importance  of  knowledge  and  virtue  as  the  "broad 
and  permanent  foundations"  of  a  free  state. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  EDUCATION.  '  ] 

"In  an  .educated  and  virtuous  community  there  is  safety ; 
the  rights  of  individuals  are  regarded  and  property  is  re- 
spected and  secure.  It  may  safely  be  assumed  as  a  fun- 
damental principle  in  our  form  of  government,  that  knowl- 
edge is  an  element  so  essential  to  its  existence  and  vigorous 
action  that  we  can  have  no  rational  hope  of  its  perpetuation 
unless  it  is  generally  diflfused."  He  emphasized  especially 
the  value  and  importance  of  elementary  education  "for  the 
great  mass  of  the  people."  "Universities  may  be  highly 
important  and  academies  of  great  utility,  but  primary  schools 
are  the  main  dependence."  Such  schools,  he  affirmed, 
should  be  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  our  whole  system  of 
public  instruction  and  the  chief  support  of  all  our  free  institu- 
tions. "National  liberty,  sound  morals,  and  education  must 
stand  or  fall  together.  Common  schools  are  democratic  in 
their  nature  and  influence  ;they  tend  to  unify  society  ;  in  them 
the  rich  and  the  poor  come  togetlier  on  terms  of  perfect 


FREE  SCHOOLS  37 

equality.  Let  free  schools  be  established  and  maintained 
in  perpetuity,  and  there  can  be  no  such  thing  as  a  perma- 
nent aristocracy  in  our  land ;  for  the  monopoly  of  wealth 
is  powerless,  where  mind  is  allowed  freely  to  come  in  con- 
tact with  mind.  We  need  wisdom,  and  prudence,  and  fore- 
sight in  our  councils ;  fixedness  of  purpose,  integrity  and 
uprightness  of  heart  in  our  rulers ;  unwavering  attachment 
to  the  rights  of  man  among  all  our  people ;  but  these  high 
attributes  of  a  noble  patriotism,  these  essential  elements  of 
civilization  and  improvement,  will  disappear  when  schools 
shall  cease  to  exert  an  all-pervading  influence  through  the 
length  and  breadth  of  our  land." 

FREE   vSCHOOLS   AND   REQUIRED   ATTENDANCE. 

Having  thus  stated  the  absolute  necessity  of  education  and 
intelligence  and  morality  among  the  people  as  a  whole,  he 
goes  on  to  inquire  how  schools,  as  a  means  of  securhig  these 
ends,  can  be  sustained.  His  conclusion  is  that  they  "ought 
emphatically  to  be  the  property  and  care  of  the  state.  To 
neglect  them,  would  be  to  neglect  the  vital  energies  of  the 
body  politic.  Hence  the  government  ought  so  far  to  assume 
the  direction,  as  to  see  to  it  that  the  benefit  of  the  school 
system  is  extended  to  all  parts  of  the  community."  It  being 
the  duty  of  the  government  to  provide  schools,  he  urges 
that  it  is  both  the  right  and  duty  of  the  State  "to  require 
of  all  persons,  having  the  care  of  children,  their  education. 
And  effectually  to  secure  the  accomplishment  of  this  object, 
they  should  be  required  to  send  them  to  school  the  consti- 
tutional proportion  of  each  year,  between  the  ages  of  five 
and  seventeen." 


38  REQUIRED  ATTENDANCE 

He  urged  that  every  district  be  required  to  maintain  a 
primary  school  at  its  own  expense  for  a  certain  number  of 
months  in  the  year ;  this  school  should  be  a  free  school, 
open  to  all  ''without  money  and  without  price."  Being  free 
and  open  to  all,  all  should  be  required  to  accept  and  appro- 
priate its  advantages.  It  should  not  be  permitted  that  any 
child  should  grow  up  in  ignorance.  We  have  here  the 
doctrine  of  free  schools  with  the  correlative  doctrine  of 
compulsory  attendance.  In  advocating  this  doctrine  Sup- 
erintendent Pierce  was  in  advance  of  the  public  sentiment 
of  his  time.  He  insisted,  nevertheless,  that  it  was  a  logical 
conclusion  from  the  premises  which  had  been  laid  down. 
He  said :  "In  all  this  there  is  nothing  inconsistent  with 
rational  liberty.  It  is  merely  providing  for  the  safety  of  the 
State,  for  its  health,  happiness,  and  vigorous  growth.  This 
dutv  stands  on  precisely  the  same  ground  as  the  law  which 
obliges  all  the  citizens  to  be  enrolled  and  occasionally  do 
military  duty.  It  is  a  wise  precautionary  measure  for  the 
public  security.  *  *  *  Most  certainly  nothing  can  be 
more  desirable,  and  nothing  more  reasonable.  The  object 
to  be  attained  is  the  welfare  of  the  individual  instructed  and 
the  security  of  the  State.  To  secure  this  object,  the  instruc- 
tion must  be  given ;  and  hence  the  state  has  a  right  to 
require  the  education  of  all  children  and  youth,  and  impose 
upon  all  to  whom  their  management  and  care  is  committed, 
the  duty  of  educating  them ;  and  if  they  can  not  do  it 
themselves,  to  send  them  to  the  public  schools." 

SCHOOLS  OF  HIGH  CHARACTER. 

If  the  state  assumes  the  duty  of  providing  schools  and 
assumes  the  right  to  require  parents  to  send  their  children 


SCHOOLS  OF  HIGH  CHARACTER  39 

to  these  schools,  unless  they  make  other  adequate  arrange- 
ments for  their  education,  it  follows  as  a  natural  conclusion 
that  such  schools  must  be  made,  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Pierce, 
"amply  sufficient  to  answer  the  just  expectations  of  human- 
ity and  the  demands  of  the  State.  Unless  these  schools 
are  adequate  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  whole  community, 
private  seminaries  will  be  established  by  the  rich,  at  which 
only  their  own  children  can  be  educated."  He  deprecated 
the  establishment  of  such  private  schools  to  any  consider- 
able extent,  because,  as  he  believed,  they  would,  if  ably  con- 
ducted and  well  endowed,  "necessarily  lead  to  a  deprecia- 
tion of  the  character  of  the  free  schools,  and  ultimately  to 
their  abandonment.  The  experience  of  the  older  states 
abundantly  confirms  this  representation.  Wherever  the 
liberality  and  enterprise  of  individuals  have  established 
flourishing  private  institutions,  they  have  uniformly  had  a 
pernicious  influence  upon  the  common  schools.  Instead  of 
being  improved  and  elevated  by  their  proximity  to  such 
institutions,  they  have  lost  their  character  and  usefulness. 
In  these  towns  where  private  seminaries  have  been  located 
and  well  sustained,  the  free  schools  will  be  found,  without 
exception,  to  be  in  a  miserable  condition.  Where  such  insti- 
tutions exist,  all  whose  means  will  allow  them  to  do  it,  pat- 
ronize them  by  sending  their  children.  *  *  *  The  result 
is,  that  all  who  do  this  necessarily  become  indififerent 
towards  the  public  schools,  and  lose  all  interest  in  their 
welfare.  It  may  not  be  consistent  with  the  principles  of 
our  constitution  to  prohibit  private  seminaries ;  but  it  is 
consistent  with  both  the  spirit  and  letter  of  our  institutions 
to  place  the  public  schools  upon  high  and  elevated  ground, 
to  make  them  adequate  to  the  wants  of  the  whole  commu- 


40  PRIVATE    SCHOOLS 

nity ;  to  place  them  on  such  a  footing  as  to  furnish  the  best 
instruction,  not  only  in  the  more  common,  but  in  all  the 
higher  branches  of  elementary  knowledge ;  so  that  those 
who  send  to  them  may  have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing 
that  their  children  are  receiving  as  good  instruction  as  the 
wealth  of  the  Indias  can  purchase.  *  *  -i^  The  primary 
schools  should  be  of  the  first  order.  The  academies 
(branches  of  the  university)  of  the  highest  grade,  and  the 
universities  assume  and  maintain  a  commanding  position ; 
and  each  and  all  of  them  to  be  so  ably  conducted  as  to  give 
entire  satisfaction  to  all   reasonable,  unprejudiced  minds." 

PRIVATE  SCHOOLS. 

The  position  of  Superintendent  Pierce  in  relation  to  pri- 
vate schools  and  denominational  colleges  was  vigorously 
opposed  at  that  time  by  many  influential  friends  of  educa- 
tion, and  has  been  severely  criticised  since  by  some  writers. 
The  merits  or  demerits  of  his  views  can  not  be  'fairly  and 
justly  estimated  without  a  knowledge  of  the  actual  condi 
tion  of  educational  aflfairs  and  of  the  schools  in  the  oldei 
states,  and  of  the  general  trend  of  public  sentiment.  The 
common  elementary  schools,  at  that  period,  were  generally 
of  the  most  unsatisfactory  character.  The  well-to-do  por- 
tion of  the  community  held  them  in  low  esteem,  if  not  in 
absolute  contempt.  In  some  sections  the\  were  regarded 
as  "pauper  schools,"  and  were  patronized  only  by  those  who 
could  not  meet  the  expense  of  tuition  in  private  institutions. 
Public  secondary  schools,  with  a  few  solitary  exceptions, 
did  not  exist.  Every  important  town  or  neighborhood  had 
its  academy  or  seminary,  continuing  through  the  entire  year, 


CONDITIONS  IN  A  NEW  STATE  41 

or  through  a  fall  and  spring  term.  "The  common  school 
revival,"  set  on  foot  by  Horace  Mann  and  his  co-workers, 
was  only  in  its  embryonic  state ;  it  had  not  yet  taken  a 
strong  hold  upon  the  public  mind.  It  is  no  easy  task  to 
revolutionize  the  established  habits  and  the  deep-seated  sen- 
timents of  an  old  community.  Mr.  Mann  did  not  live  long 
enough  to  see  public  high  schools  supplant  the  academies 
of  New  England  in  the  estimation  and  patronage  of  peo- 
ple who  could  afford  to  pay  the  cost  of  private  instruction. 
In  a  young  community,  unhampered  by  old  traditions, 
old  customs,  and  old  prejudices,  it  is  possible  10  mtrocluce 
new  ideas,  new  methods,  new  institutions,  with  a  reasonable 
prospect  that  they  will  be  fairly  considered,  justly  estimated, 
and  readily  adopted,  if  found  worthy  of  acceptance.  For 
these  various  reasons  public  educational  institutions  of  all 
grades,  from  the  primary  school  to  the  university,  came  into 
popular  favor  and  were  patronized  by  all  classes  in  the 
west  at  an  earlier  period  than  in  the  east.  Public  senti- 
ment was  in  an  impressible  and  formative  state ;  it  had  not 
yet  crystalized.  Superintendent  Pierce  and  his  immediate 
associates,  wise  enough  to  comprehend  the  exact  situation, 
wished  to  take  advantage  of  this  fact  and  to  give  the  public 
schools  at  least  a  fair  chance  to  win  popular  favor,  and  to 
prove  that  they  could  furnish  facilities  for  primary  and  sec- 
ondary education  of  a  quality  excellent  enough  to  satisfy 
the  reasonable  demands  of  the  whole  community.  To 
accomplish  this  purpose  it  was  necessary  to  turn  the  atten- 
tion, interest,  and  effort  of  the  public  generally  toward  the 
public  schools  and  away  from  private  institutions.  He 
desired  to  encourage  and  foster  the  public  schools  and  to 
discourage  private  ones.     He  wrote:  ''With  us,  as  a  state, 


42  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 

all  is  new ;  and  we  are  at  liberty  to  adopt  such  principles,  and 
form  such  rules  of  action  as,  on  mature  reflection,  the  great 
interests  of  learning  may  seem  to  require.  It  is  respect- 
fully suggested  to  the  consideration  of  the  Legislature, 
whether  it  will  be  desirable  to  incorporate  such  a  number 
of  private  associations  for  the  purpose  of  education  as  will 
have  the  effect  to  draw  off  the  attention  and  interest  of  any 
considerable  portion  of  the  public  from  the  institutions 
founded  by  the  State." 

SECOND  REPORT. 

In  his  second  report  he  continued  the  discussion  of  some 
of  the  general  principles  upon  which  the  school  system 
should  rest,  the  necessity  of  securing,  in  some  way,  the  edu- 
cation of  the  whole  population,  and  the  policy  which  should 
be  adopted  in  relation  to  private  schools,  especially  those 
of  collegiate  rank.  He  wrote:  "In  laying  the  foundations 
of  a  new  state,  it  is  all  important  to  provide,  not  only  for 
the  education  of  every  individual  of  the  present,  but  of  each 
one  of  all  succeeding  generations.  Unless  ample  provision 
is  made  for  each  individual  of  all  classes,  we  can  have  no 
security  that  the  great  mass  will  ever  be  educated;  for  the 
great  whole  is  made  up  of  individuals,  i^  *  *  Laws 
should  be  so  framed  in  all  cases,  as  to  leave  unimpaired, 
and  in  all  its  force,  individual  responsibility.  It  is  the  duty 
of  parents  to  educate  their  children ;  and  no  legislative  en- 
actment should  interfere  with  this  obligation.  But  it  is 
well  known  that  this  duty  is  neglected  in  innumerable 
instances.  It  is  hence  the  right  of  the  state  so  far  to  inter- 
pose its  paternal  authority,  as  to  give  additional  might  to 
this  obligation,  and  make  such  provisions  as  will  secure  the 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  43 

desired  result.  And  it  is  exceedingly  desirable  that  such  a 
system  be  ultimately  adopted  as  will  make  it  the  interest 
as  well  as  the  duty  of  each  individual  to  unite  and  cooperate 
with  all  others  in  accomplishing  an  object  worthy  the  high- 
est consideration.  '''  *  *  The  truth  is  the  only  rational 
security  the  great  body  of  the  people  can  have,  is  to  be 
found  in  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  them- 
selves. But  so  generally  do  parents,  unaided  by  sanction 
and  encouragement  of  law,  neglect  the  education  of  their 
children,  that  the  great  mass  will  remain  uneducated,  and 
the  multitude  of  the  rising  generation  grow  up  in  ignorance 
of  their  duties  as  citizens  of  one  vast  commonwealth,  unless 
the  state  effectually  interpose  its  rightful  authority,  and 
make  adequate  provision  for  the  instruction  of  all  classes. 
'•'  *  *  There  is  and  can  be  no  security  of  individual  rights, 
persons,  or  property,  except  in  an  educated  and  virtuous 
community.  In  no  other  will  liberty  or  life  be  regarded. 
But  though  an  educated  community  may  not  necessarily  be 
a  virtuous,  and  hence  a  safe  community,  yet  it  is  true  in  fact 
that  an  ignorant  people  are  generally  a  vicious  people.  In 
the  midst  of  such  a  people,  free  institutions  never  did  and 
never  can  long  subsist  and  flourish.  Nothing  but  the  strong 
arm  of  power  can  impose  upon  them  such  restraints  as  will 
keep  them  in  subjugation  to  law  and  the  rights  of  govern- 
ment." 

The  Superintendent  again  urged  the  importance  of  secur- 
ing "a  full  supply  of  well  qualified  teachers,"  and  "of  making 
the  public  schools  fully  adequate  to  the  wants  of  the  entire 
community,  and  of  furnishing  them  with  teachers  compe- 
tent to  discharge  the  duties  of  their  high  calling.  If  they 
are  made,  as  they  should  be,  decidedly  superior  to  all  other 


44  CHARTERS  FOR  COLLEGES 

schools,  they  will  be  patronized  as  well  by  the  rich  as  the 
poor.  No  schools  are  so  expensive  as  private  schools.  Thus 
in  Cincinnati,  where  the  greatest  provision  is  made  for 
the  common  school  education  of  any  city  in  the  west,  fifteen 
hundred  children  are  taught  in  private  schools  at  an  annual 
expense  of  twenty-seven  thousand  dollars ;  while  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  about  three  thousand  are  taught  at  a  yearly 
expense  of  twenty-five  thousand  dollars.  And  it  is  grati- 
fying to  learn  that  the  best  teachers  are  to  be  found  in  the 
public  schools;  and  so  judiciously  are  these  schools  man- 
aged, that  they  are  fast  superseding  all  private  ones,  and 
gaining  the  ascendency  in  the  minds  of  all  classes." 

CHARTERS  FOR  COLLEGES. 

In  this  report  Mr.  Pierce  discussed,  at  considerable  length 
the  question  of  granting  charters  for  priA'^atc  and  denomina- 
tional colleges.  As  his  position  upon  this  matter  has  been 
subjected  to  severe  criticism,  it  is  only  common  justice  to 
allow  him  to  present  his  views  in  his  own  language  as  fully 
as  space  will  permit.  He  says :  "The  question  of  chartering 
private  associations  with  university  powers,  giving  the 
right  of  conferring  degrees,  is  one  of  the  first  magnitude 
as  it  regards  the  higher  branches  of  classical  education.  It 
is  a  question  not  of  feeling,  not  of  liberality,  but  a 
great  question  of  state  policy.  It  is  a  question  involv- 
the  highest  consideration,  the  determination  and  set- 
tlement of  which  will  affect  the  character  of  the 
state  in  all  time  to  come.  Its  future  reputation  in 
the  higher  departments  of  literature  and  science  depends 
chiefly  on  the  decision  of  this  question.     When  this  decision 


CHARTERS  FOR  COLLEGES  45 

is  finally  made,  it  will  not  require  the  inspiration  of  a  proph- 
et to  determine  whether  the  state  shall  eventually  assume 
the  first  rank  in  the  republic  of  letters,  by  founding  and 
rearing  up  an  institution  of  noble  stature  and  just  propor- 
tions, worthy  alike  of  the  state  and  of  learning,  and  equally 
worthy  the  name  of  a  university,  or  whether  the  state  shall 
ultimately  sink  to  a  low  level  in  the  world  of  knowledge, 
having  institutions  under  the  imposing  name  of  colleges, 
scattered  through  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  with- 
out funds,  without  cabinets,  without  apparatus,  without  li- 
braries, without  talents,  without  character,  and  without  the 
ability  of  ever  attaining  them.  If  one  is  granted,  others 
must  be,  and  there  is  no  limit."  Referring  to  the  older 
eastern  states  and  their  numerous  colleges,  with  their  com- 
paratively abundant  resources  in  way  of  population  and 
wealth,  he  said:  *'But  even  in  these  states  they  (the  col- 
leges) are  so  numerous  that,  with  all  their  population, 
wealth  and  power,  it  is  found  to  be  exceedingly  difficult  to 
sustain  and  support  them.  Not  more  than  three  or  four 
of  them  have  ever  been  able  to  attain  anything  like  a  com- 
manding position.  Generally  their  rank  is  low  and  ever 
must  be ;  and  they  are  obliged  to  struggle  from  year  to 
year  for  a  bare  existence.  It  is  indeed  a  herculean  task  to 
found,  raise  up  and  maintain  a  college  of  an  elevated  char- 
acter. The  indispensable  yearly  expenditure  of  such  an 
institution  is  necessarily  great.  If  we  go  south  or  west  of 
the  states  already  enumerated,  w^e  shall  find  chartered  insti- 
tutions, under  the  imposing  appellation  of  universities  and 
colleges,  almost  without  number.  But  w^e  shall  look  in 
vain  for  an  institution  of  eminence  and  high  literary  rep- 
iitation.     All  these  states  are  broken  into  fragments,  each 


46        TEACHINGS  OF  EXPERIENCE 

one  of  which  has  Its  university  or  college;  and  the  great 
contest  seems  to  be  for  mere  life ;  to  live  is  all  they  do,  and 
it  is  all  they  can  expect  to  do.  *  *  *  How  narrow-minded 
and  miserable  the  policy  that  has  resulted  in  such  a  state 
of  things !  a  state  of  things  to  be  exceedingly  deplored, 
because  directly  at  war  with  high  attainments  in  literature, 
science,  and  the  arts.  Was  there  but  a  single  institution 
in  each  of  the  different  states,  in  which  all  funds,  energies, 
patronage,  and  talents  of  its  state  were  centered,  what  an 
elevated  national  literature,  instead  of  the  present  stinted 
growth." 

With  a  view  "of  obtaining  light  from  the  experience  of 
others,"  Superintendent  Pierce  addressed  a  letter  of  inquiry 
to  a  number  of  "distinguished  gentlemen  and  scholars, 
residing  in  different  parts  of  the  country,"  in  which  he  said : 
"1  wish  to  obtain  the  result  of  your  observation  as  to  the 
effect  produced  on  the  higher  branches  of  literature  and 
science  by  the  multiplication  of  universities  and  colleges  in 
the  United  States.  We  have  just  commenced  our  existence 
as  a  state ;  and  the  public  mind  is  directed  with  rnuch  solici- 
tude to  the  subject  of  education.  But  in  the  creation  of 
the  higher  institutions  of  learning,  a  question  has  arisen 
whether  we  shall  grant  to  an  indefinite  number  of  private 
associations  the  right  of  conferring  degrees,  or  for  the  pres- 
ent ^concQntr  ate  our  energies  in  one  university.  The  ques- 
ion  is  expected  to  come  up  for  discussion  at  the  next  session 
of  our  legislature ;  and  it  is  highly  important  that  we  avail 
ourselves  of  all  the  light,  which  the  wisdom  and  experience 
of  others  can  furnish."  ?Ie  embodied  in  his  report,  replies 
from  President  Wayland,  of  Brown  University ;  from  Pres- 
ident Edward  Everett,  of  Harvard  University ;  and   from 


;  vSAFEGUARDS  DEMANDED  47 

several  other  distinguished  educators,  all  of  whom,  with 
varying  degrees  of  positiveness,  expressed  the  opinion  that 
it  would  be  the  part  of  wisdom,  in  a  new  state,  with  re- 
sources necessarily  limited,  to  concentrate  efforts  and  means 
upon  a  single  institution,  rather  than  to  grant  to  a  large 
num1)er  of  private  associations  collegiate  or  university  pow- 
ers. In  summing  up  the  conclusions  from  his  correspon- 
dence, Mr.  Pierce  said :  "It  results  therefore  with  great 
clearness  from  the  statements  and  reasonings  presented,  that 
the  multiplication  of  institutions  under  the  imposing  name  of 
universities  and  colleges,  in  our  country,  is  to  be  regarded 
as  an  evil  of  great  magnitude,  as  exceedingly  detrimental 
to  the  interests  of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts."  Instead, 
however,  of  recommending  that  no  charters  be  granted  to 
private  institutions  upon  any  conditions,  he  went  on  to  say : 
"To  guard  effectually  against  the  evils  so  universally  depre- 
cated, and  in  accordance  with  the  practice  in  New  York, 
let  the  regents  of  the  university  be  empowered  to  grant  char- 
ters of  colleges  only  on  condition  that  the  association  apply- 
ing shall  have  actually  secured,  for  the  use  of  the  institution, 
the  sum  of  two  hundred  thousand  dollars ;  of  this  sum,  fifty 
thousand  dollars,  at  least,  should  be  invested  in  suitable 
buildings  and  other  accommodations,  and  the  balance,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars,  so  invested  and  secured 
as  that  the  full  amount  of  the  interest  arising  therefrom, 
shall  be  yearly  available  for  the  support  of  the  college,  so 
long  as  it  shall  continue  in  operation,  reserving  to  the 
state  in  all  cases,  the  right  of  visitation  and  of  an  annual 
report.  No  institution  ought  ever  to  be  allowed  to  assume 
the  name  and  responsibility  of  a  college  on  a  less  solid  and 
permanent  foundation." 


48  VIEWS  PARTIALLY  ADOPTED 

In  concluding  the  discussion  of  this  subject  Mr.  Pierce 
said:  "Deeming  the  question  above  discussed  to  be  one 
of  vital  importance,  the  Superintendent  has  felt  constrained, 
in  the  outset  of  that  career  of  improvement  in  which  the 
state  seems  disposed  to  enter,  to  present  to  the  consideration 
of  the  legislature,  his  views  in  an  extended  form  on  the  sub- 
ject. It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  policy  now  adopted 
is  destined  to  affect  the  literary  standing  and  character  of 
the  state,  not  only  for  the  time  of  the  present  generation, 
but  so  long  as  the  republic  and  its  institutions  shall  be  pre- 
served." 

The  views  and  recommendations  of  Superintendent 
Pierce  were  not  fully  adopted  by  the  legislature ;  but  they 
undoubtedly  had  an  influence  in  checking,  to  a  very  consid- 
erable extent,  the  tendency  to  multiply  unnecessarily  pri- 
vate institutions  of  an  educational  character  with  collegiate 
powers.  The  drift  of  public  sentiment  today  is  strongly 
in  the  direction  of  the  position  which  he  assumed  and 
attempted  to  fortify.  Judicial  candor  compels  one  to  ac- 
knowledge the  strength  of  the  position  and  the  force  of  his 
reasoning  as  the  conditions  were  at  that  period  in  the  pro- 
gress of  the  State.  Changed  conditions,  however,  have 
rendered  the  precautionary  restrictions  which  he  urged  no 
longer  needful  or  desirable.  The  public  schools  of  all 
grades  will  now  be  benefited  rather  than  injured  by  the 
establishment  of  a  proper  number  of  well-endowed,  effic- 
iently supported,  and  ably  conducted  private  and  denomina- 
tional institutions. 

COMPETENT  TEACHERS. 
Having  completed,  in  his  first  report,  his  arguments  for 


SUPPLY  OF  TEACHERS  49 

the  establishment  of  primary  schools  of  high  grade  and 
sufficient  in  number  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  whole  commu- 
nity, Mr.  Pierce  proceeded  to  discuss  the  question  of  secur- 
ing an  adequate  supply  of.  qualified  teachers.  Keeping  in 
mind  the  fact  that  no  public  normal  school  had,  at  that  time, 
been  opened  in  the  United  States,  and  that  only  a  few  of 
the  most  intelligent  and  earnest  friends  of  common  schools 
had  begun  to  consider  the  importance  of  special  preparation 
for  the  work  of  teaching,  his  views  upon  the  subject  are 
worthy  of  being  repeated  and  held  in  remembrance  by  all 
friends  of  educational  progress.  His  opinions  had  evidently 
been  influenced  by  the  report  of  Dr.  C.  E.  Stowe  upon  the 
teachers'  seminaries  of  Europe,  by  the  report  of  M.  Cousin, 
and  by  his  acquaintance  with  the  movements  in  the  east 
under  the  leadership  of  Horace  Mann,  Henry  Barnard  and 
others,  from  whose  writings  he  quoted.  He  said:  "The 
most  perfect  organization  of  the  entire  system  of  schools, 
in  all  the  varied  departments  of  instruction,  must  fail  of 
securing  the  desired  results  without  a  sufficient  number  of 
competent  teachers."  He  quoted  from  an  address  before 
the  American  Institute  of  Instruction  and  from  a  memorial 
of  that  body  to  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts :  "If 
education  is  a  science,  how  is  it  to  be  understood  without 
study?  And  if  teaching  is  an  art,  how  can  it  be  success- 
fully practiced  without  suitable  preparation?  How  then 
can  the  profession  of  teacher  be  esteemed,  if  men  generally 
enter  it  who  know  little  or  nothing  of  either?  *  *  *  '^ 
On  what  principle  of  common  sense  is  it  that  a  man  is  con- 
sidered good  enough  for  a  teacher,  because  he  has  satisfac- 
torily proved  himself  good  for  no  one  thing  else?  Why  is 
it,  that  the  utter  want  of  health  to  exercise  any  other  pro- 


50  TEACHERS'  WAGES 

fession,  is  frequently  the  only  reason  why  a  man  should  be 
thrust  into  this,  which  requires  more  active  mental  labor  in 
the  discharge  of  its  duties  than  any  other  profession  what- 
soever?" He  also  gave  extracts  from  M.  Cousin's  report 
and  from  a  recent  report  of  Hon.  John  A.  Dix,  the  Superin- 
tendent of  schools  in  the  State  of  New  York,  advocating 
the  establishment  of  institutions  for  the  proper  education 
and  training  of  teachers.  It  was  stated  that  the  regents 
of  the  university  of  New  York  had  already  "appended  to 
eight  existing  academic  institutions,  a  department  expressly 
for  the  education  of  teachers."  Mr.  Pierce  proposed  to 
provide  for  teachers'  departments  in  connection  with  the 
branches  of  the  university  to  supply  the  immediate  pressing 
demand  for  more  competent  instructors  in  the  primary 
schools. 

TEACHERS'  WAGES. 

In  this  connection  he  touched  upon  the  subject  of  teach- 
ers' wages,  and  the  imperative  necessity  of  securing  for 
them  a  more  adequate  compensation.  He  wrote:  "It  is 
obvious  that  the  great  reason  why  there  has  been  such  a 
deficiency  in  the  number  of  qualified  teachers,  is  to  be  found 
in  an  unwillingness  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants  to  pay 
such  wages  as  to  secure  the  services  of  individuals  of  the 
required  talents  and  qualifications.  If  so,  it  is  confidently 
believed  to  be  within  the  power  of  the  state  to  obviate  the 
difficulty.  Let  teachers  be  paid  as  they  ought  to  be,  let 
them  receive  such  compensations  as  will  remunerate  them 
for  their  services,  and  sufficient  numbers  will  be  found  to 
fit  themselves  for  the  business  of  teaching.  And  to  secure 
their  employment  when  fitted  to  teach,  let  the  provisions  of 


WAGES  OF  TEACHERS 


51 


the  law  be  such  that  no  township  shall  be  entitled  to  any 
portion  of  the  income  of  the  public  fund,  which  does  not 
employ  thoroughly  educated  teachers.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  no  man  ought  ever  to  be  considered  as  qualified 
to  teacli  a  school,  whose  time  is  not  worth  at  least  thirty 
dollars  a  month  ;  and  that  no  female  ought  to  be  engaged 
in  this  ^^ork  whose  services  are  not  worth  fifteen  dollars 
per  month.  This  suggestion  is  certainly  worthy  of  consid- 
eration ;  and  it  is  also  worthy  of  consideration  whether  it 
will  not  be  expedient  to  fix  on  a  minimum  price,  below  which 
no  teacher  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  aid  from  the  avails 
of  the  public  fund ;  and  to  provide  prospectively  that  every 
teacher  of  the  public  schools  shall  have  been  through  a  reg- 
ular course  of  training,  and  received  from  the  academic 
board  a  diploma,  setting  forth  his  qualifications  as  a  teacher. 
=!<  *  >!<  ^\^Q  almost  iniiversal  employment  of  incompetent 
teachers  is  a  waste  of  money,  a  waste  of  time,  and  a  waste 
of  intellect ;  the  greatest  conceivable  outrage  under  the 
name  of  benevolence  and  duty,  that  can  be  perpetrated  upon 
the  rights  and  dearest  interests  of  the  rising  generation, 
tending  directly  to  moral  as  well  as  political  degradation 
and  slavery.  Whatever  system  may  be  adopted,  and  how- 
ever perfect  in  form,  it  will  prove  itself  essentially  defective, 
unless  it  provides  a  sufficient  number  of  teachers,  well  edu- 
cated and  bred  to  the  profession,  men  qualified  and  compe- 
tent, men  who  can  elevate  and  leave  their  mark  upon  their 
pupils." 

These  excerpts  present  a  tolerably  completed  outline  of 
the  general  principles  upon  which  Superintendent  Pierce 
based  his  common  school  system  and  his  plan  for  a  univer- 
sity and  its  branches.     Some  of  his  more  special  suggestions 


52 


WAGES  OF  TEACHERS 


and  recommendations  will  be  noticed  in  other  connections, 
and  also  his  recommendations  in  relation  to  the  manage- 
ment of  educational  funds  and  lands  granted  for  educa- 
tional purposes. 


•CHAPTER  TV. 
ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 

The  report  and  recommendations  of  Superintendent 
Pierce  were  followed  by  the  passage  of  .three  legislative 
acts,  prepared  under  his  direction,  during  the  session  com- 
mencing in  January,  1837,  Some  changes  were  made  in 
the  act  providing  for  the  organization  of  primary  schools, 
when  the  statutes  were  revised  in  1838.  As  revised,  it  was 
published  by  order  of  the  Legislature  under  the  title  ''School 
Law  of  the  State  of  Michigan." 

Mr.  Pierce  says  in  his  report :  ''These  several  acts  con- 
stitute what  may  be  termed  the  Michigan  School  System." 
One  act  provided  "for  the  organization  and  support  of  Pri- 
mary Schools ;"  one  "for  the  organization  and  government 
of  the  University  of  Michigan;"  and  one  "for  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  University  and  Primary  school  lands,  and  for 
other  purposes."  The  provisions  of  these  acts  make  us 
acquainted  with  the  original  educational  system  of  the  State. 

THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 

The  unit  of  this  system  was,  as  it  still  is,  the  subdivision 
of  the  township  known  as  the  school  district,  not  to  exceed 
nine  sections  or  one-fourth  of  the  township.  This  limit 
was  not  removed  until  the  opening  year  of  the  twentieth 
century.  This  small  subdivision  of  the  State  was  made 
practically   almost  independent  in  the   management  of  its 

53 


54  'fHE  SCHOOL  DISTRICT 

educational  affairs.  Its  internal  organization  was  essen- 
tially the  same  as  in  the  later  years  of  the  Territorial  period. 
The  right  of  suffrage  upon  all  matters  was  given  to  all 
white  male  inhabitants  over  twenty-one  years  of  age  resid- 
ing in  the  district  and  liable  to  be  taxed  for  school  purposes. 
Citizenship  at  that  time  was  not  of  as  much  importance  as 
the  color  of  the  skin. 


POWERS  OF  THE  DISTRICT. 

The  district  was  empowered  to  levy  a  tax,  not  exceeding 
five  hundred  dollars  in  any  one  year  to  provide  a  school 
house ;  to  raise  by  tax  ten  dollars  a  year  for  the  purchase  of 
library  books ;  to  determine,  by  vote,  if  it  choose  to  do  so, 
the  books  to  be  used  in  the  school  or  leave  the  selection  to 
the  district  board;  to  determine  the  length  of  time  the 
school  should  be  kept,  which  should  not  be  less  than  three 
months  in  each  year;  and  to  fix  the  amount  of  money  to 
be  raised  by  tax  to  pay  the  wages  of  teachers,  the  sum  not 
to  exceed  ninety  dollars  in  any  one  year. 

The  expense  for  fuel  was  to  be  paid  by  "the  inhabitants 
sending  pupils  to  school  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
pupils  and  the  time  they  shall  attend."  In  case  tlie  appor- 
tionment of  public  money  and  the  amount  raised  by  district 
tax  for  teachers'  wages  were  not  sufficient  for  that  purpose, 
the  necessary  additional  sum  was  to  be  assessed  upon  the 
parents  or  guardians  of  the  children  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  children  sent  to  the  school  and  the  time  of  attend- 
ance. This  was  a  provision  for  the  "rate-bill"  which  became 
the  subject  of  so  much  debate  in  subsequent  years. 


DISTRICT  OFFICERS  55 

DISTRICT  OFFICERS. 

The  district  officers  were  a  moderator,  an  assessor,  and 
a  director,  all  elected  for  one  year,  and,  when  acting  to- 
g-ether, constituting  a  district  board.  The  almost  autono- 
mous character  of  the  district  necessarily  made  the  powers 
of  these  officers  more  extensive,  and  their  duties  more  re- 
sponsible than  those  of  the  same  officers  at  the  present  time. 
They  levied  and  collected  taxes  voted  by  the  district,  the  as- 
sessor being  in  reality  an  assessor  and  also  collector  as  well 
as  treasurer.  The  moderator  was,  as  now,  a  presiding  officer. 
The  director  performed  the  usual  duties  of  a  clerk  ;  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  moderator  and  assessor,  or  either 
of  them,  employed  teachers  and  paid  them ;  took  a  census 
of  the  school  children  of  the  district ;  and  made  a  full  annual 
report  to  the  board  of  township  school  inspectors.  The 
board  filled  vacancies  in  its  own  membership,  made  a  de- 
tailed report  at  the  annual  district  meeting,  and  received 
such  compensation  as  the  district  voted. 

TOWNSHIP  SCHOOL  OFFICERS. 

Under  the  State  system  the  township  school  officers  were 
less  in  number  than  under  the  previous  Territorial  system. 
The  changes,  on  the  admission  of  the  State  into  the  Union, 
in  respect  to  the  management  of  school  lands  made  a  re- 
duction possible  and  desirable.  A  board  of  three  school 
inspectors  was  chosen  annually  in  the  same  manner  as 
other  township  officers.  The  township  clerk  was  ex-officio 
clerk  of  this  board,  but  not  a  member ;  he  kept  the  records, 
books,  and  papers  of  the  board,  received  communications 


56  TOWNSHIP  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

from  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  trans- 
mitted reports  to  the  county  clerk  and  performed  such 
other  duties  as  the  board  might  require.  At  a  later  period 
the  number  of  inspectors  was  reduced  to  two  and  the  town- 
ship clerk  was  made  a  full  member  of  the  board.  The 
board  elected  a  chairman  who  was  also  treasurer  and  gave 
the  usual  bonds. 

The  board  had  power,  and  it  was  also  their  duty,  to  di- 
vide the  township  into  districts  and  regulate  their  boundar- 
ies ;  to  receive  school  and  library  moneys  from  the  county 
treasurer  and  from  the  township  collector ;  to  apportion 
school  and  library  moneys  to  the  several  districts  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  children  between  the  ages  of  five  and 
seventeen ;  to  make  a  report  to  the  county  clerk  annually, 
embodying  the  substance  of  the  reports  from  the  directors 
of  the  several  districts ;  in  connection  with  the  inspectors 
of  other  townships  to  form  fractional  districts  of  territory 
embraced  in  two  or  more  adjoining  townships ;  to  examine 
teachers  and  to  grant  certificates  valid  for  one  year,  in  such 
form  as  the  State  Superintendent  should  prescribe ;  and  to 
visit  all  the  schools  in  the  township,  at  least  twice  in  each 
year,  "to  inquire  into  their  condition,  examine  the  scholars, 
and  to  give  such  advice  to  both  teachers  and  scholars  as 
they  shall  deem  proper."  The  board  filled  its  own  vacan- 
cies, and  the  members  were  entitled  to  "the  sum  of  one  dol- 
lar and  fifty  cents  per  day"  for  their  services.  The  law 
gave  no  specific  directions  in  regard  to  meetings  of  the 
board  for  the  examination  of  teachers,  or  for  other  pur- 
poses, except  for  organization,  and  only  required  that  can- 
didates for  the  position  of  teachers  should  be  examined  "in 
regard  to  moral  character,  learning,  and  ability  to  teach 
school." 


DUTIES  OF  COUNTY  OFFICERS  '     57 

DUTIES.  OF   CERTAIN   COUNTY   OFFICERS. 

The  county  clerk  was  required  to  receive  all  communica- 
tions directed  to  him  by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, and  to  dispose  of  these  as  directed  by  that  officer ; 
and,  on.  or  before  the  twentieth  of.  November,  of  each  year, 
to  make  and  transmit  to  the  Superintendent  a  report  in 
writing  containing  a  statement  of  the  whole  number  of 
townships  in  the  county,  and  a  copy  of  all  the  reports  made 
to  him  by  the  township  inspectors.  The  county  board  of 
supervisors  or  commissioners  allowed  the  clerk  such  com- 
pensation for  his  service  as  they  deemed  proper. 

DISTRICT  LIBRARIES. 

Every  district  which  made  the  necessary  provision  for  the 
care  of  a  library,  and  voted  a  tax,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars, 
annually  for  the  purchase  of  books,  was  entitled  to  receive 
its  proportion  of  the  clear  proceeds  of  all  fines  collected  in 
the  county  for  any  breach  of  the  penal  laws,  and  also  its 
proportion  of  any  moneys  paid  for  exemption  from  military 
duty,  such  moneys  being  apportioned  among  the  townships 
"according  to  the  number  of  children  between  the  ages  or 
five  and  seventeen  inclusive."  The  intention  of  the  super- 
intendent and  the  purpose  of  the  law  were  to  encourage  the 
formation  of  district  instead  of  township  libraries. 

ORGANIZATION    OF   THE   UNIVERSITY. 

The  act  for  "the  organization  and  government"  of  the 
University  vested  its  management  in  a  board  of  twelve 
regents,  with  the  addition  of  a  considerable  number  of  ex 


58  TPJE  UNIVERSITY 

officio  members,  consisting  of  the  Governor  and  several 
others  of  the  State  officials.  The  institution  was  to  have 
three  departments,  all  the  professorships  to  be  established 
were  enumerated  in  the  act.  Nevv^  professorships  could  be 
established  only  with  the  consent  of  the  Legislature.  The 
regents  were  required  to  make  a  full  report  of  the  condition 
of  the  university  annually  to  a  board  of  visitors  appointed 
by  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  This  board  of 
visitors  reported  to  the  superintendent,  and  he  reported  to 
the  legislature ;  and  the  plans  of  buildings  were  to  be  ap- 
proved by  the  governor  and  the  superintendent.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  superintendent,  the  regents  were  authorized 
to  establish  branches  of  the  university  in  different  parts  of 
the  State,  but  not  more  than  one  in  any  county.  No  branch, 
however,  could  be  established  without  special  authority  from 
the  legislature.  In  connection  with  every  branch  a  depart- 
ment for  females  was  to  be  organized,  whenever  suitable 
buildings  were  provided.  A  department  of  agriculture  was 
also  to  be  established  in  some  one  of  the  branches,  and  a 
department  especially  appropriated  to  the  education  of 
teachers  for  the  primary  schools  in  each  of  them.  Other 
departments  m.ight  be  organized  at  the  discretion  of  the 
regents.  An  examination  of  this  act  shows  the  democratic 
trend  of  public  sentiment  at  that  period.  The  legislative 
body,  as  representatives  of  the  people,  granted  powers  and 
privileges  with  great  caution,  and  reserved  the  authority 
to  give  direction  in  all  matters  of  importance.  The  regents 
and  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  were  only  the 
agents  and  servants  of  the  law-making  body.  This  theory 
of  the  legislature  explains  much  that  appeared  in  the  sub- 
sequent evolution  of  the  educational  system  of  the  State, 


THE  STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  59 

and  shows  that  conflicts  were  inevitable  between  that  body 
and  other  bodies  created  by  the  constitution  and  deriving 
their  authority  directly  from  that  instrument.  Practical  co- 
''ordination"  remained  to  be  established  by  the  lessons  of 
experience. 

The  act  relating  to  "the  disposition  of  the  university  and 
primary  school  lands,"  of  great  imporance  at  that  time,  is 
related  to  our  purpose  only  so  far  as  it  imposed  certain  duties 
of  a  permanent  nature  upon  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  and,  by  inference,  defined  and  limited  his  pow- 
ers. These  duties  will  be  indicated  in  the  discussion  of  the 
next  topic. 

POWERS  AND  DUTIES  OF  THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF 
PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION. 

Both  the  original  constitution  of  1835,  and  the  revised 
constitution  of  1850  gave  the  legislature  arthority  to  define 
the  powers  and  prescribe  the  duties  of  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction.  The  revised  constitution  said  only  that 
he  should  have  the  "general  supervision  of  public  instruc- 
tion"— a  statement  which  meant  much  or  little,  according- 
to  tlie  interpretation  put  upon  it  by  the  legislative  body.  No 
single  legislative  act  defined  the  extent  of  his  powers  or 
prescribed  in  full  his  duties.  Various  acts,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, touched  upon  the  question  of  his  powers,  and  involved 
the  question  of  his  duties.  The  first  statute  relating  10  edu- 
cation, enacted  under  the  constitution  of  1835,  imposed  upon 
the  superintendent  certain  duties  merely  temporary  in  their 
nature.  Pie  was  required  to  prepare  and  report  to  the 
legislature,  at  its  next  session,  in  1837,  ^  system  of  com.n.'on 


6o  DUTIES  OF  SUPERINTENDENT 

schools,  and  a  plan  for  a  university  and  its  branches,  and 
to  perform  various  other  duties  relating  chiefly  to  lands 
reserved  for  educational  purposes.  '  When  this  report  had 
been  made  these  duties  were  performed. 

The  act  for  organizing  the  university  was  approved  March 
i8,  1837  j  ^^^  ^^^  providing  for  the  organization  of  primary 
schools  on  the  20th  of  the  same  month,  and  the  act  for  t1:e 
disposition  of  university  and  primary  school  lands  on  the 
2 1  St.  Each  of  these  acts  imposed  certain  duties  of  a  per- 
manent nature  upon  the  superintendent  and,  by  implication, 
invested  him  with  certain  powers. 

The  duties  imposed  by  the  act  for  the  organization  ot 
the  university  were,  to  appoint  a  board  of  five  visitors  an- 
nually and  to  transmit  their  report  to  the  legislature ;  to 
cooperate  with  the  regents  in  establishing  branches  of  the 
university  ;  and  to  approve  plans  for  the  university  buildings. 

The  act  for  organizing  primary  schools  required  the  supei- 
intendent,  by  implication,  to  furnish  the  township  school 
inspectors  with  blank  forms  for  teachers'  certificates ;  to 
receive  reports  from  the  county  clerks ;  and  to  apportion 
to  the  various  counties  the  proceeds  of  the  school  fund. 

The  act  providing  for  the  disposition  of  lands  granted 
various  powers  and  imposed  corresponding  duties.  The 
superintendent  was  vested  with  authority  to  care  for  and 
dispose  of  such  lands  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of 
law,  and  to  employ,  with  the  approval  of  the  governor,  all 
necessary  assistants.  For  several  years  the  superintendent 
was  a  land  commissioner  rather  than  an  educational  officer. 
As  his  duties  in  this  direction  were  fortunately  only  tempor- 
ary, it  is  unnecessary  to  refer  to  them  further  In  detail.  The 
following  duties  imposed  by  this  act,  were  generally  of  a 


I  .  SUMMARY  OF  DUTIES  6l 

permanent  character,  and  were,  in  the  main,  appropriate  to 
his  office : 

1.  To  suhmit  to  the  legislature  an  annual  report  exhibit- 
ing the  condition  of  all  educational  funds ;  the  condition  of 
the  public  schools  of  all  grades ;  and  to  present  such  other 
matters  pertaining  to  his  office  and  to  the  schools  as  he 
deemed  proper. 

2.  To  prepare  and  distribute  suitable  blank  forms  for  the 
reports  required  of  the  various  school  officers ;  to  provide 
regulations  for  the  transaction  of  business  under  the  school 
laws ;  to  give  proper  instructions  for  the  organization  and 
government  of  the  public  schools ;  and  such  directions 
as  he  should  think  advisable  in  relation  to  courses  of  study. 

3.  To  apportion  the  income  of  the  school  fund  to  the 
townships  and  cities  of  the  State  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  children  between  the  ages  of  five  and  eighteen,  and 
to  apply  the  income  of  the  university  fund  according  to  the 
provisions  of  the  law. 

4.  To  prepare  annually  and  present  to  the  auditor  gen- 
eral a  statement  of  the  amount  of  money  payable  to  the  uni- 
versity and  to  the  several  counties  from  the  educational 
funds,  and  to  send  to  the  county  clerk  notices  of  the  amount 
to  be  paid  to  the  different  townships. 

Some  of  these  duties  have  continued  without  essential 
change  until  the  present  time ;  others  have  been  modified  to 
meet  changed  conditions ;  many  others  have  been  added  dur- 
ing the  evolution  of  the  school  system.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  original  powers  of  the  superintendent,  so  far  as 
they  had  relation  to  the  proper  functions  of  an  educational 
officer,  were  very  limited.  Such  limitation  was  in  accord- 
ance with  the  general  policy  of  the  legislature  at  that  period. 


62  SUMMARY  OF  THE  SYSTEM 

There  has  been  a  uniform  tendency  to  a  gradual  extension 
of  his  authority,  and  to  a  corresponding  increase  of  his 
duties  and  responsibilities. 

A  summary  of  the  provisions  of  the  se\'eral  acts  of  the 
legislature,  interpreted  by  the  discussions  and  recommenda- 
tions of  Superintendent  Pierce,  shows  the  main  features  of 
the  original  ^'Michigan  public  school  system"  to  be  the 
following : 

1.  The  system,  as  an  organic  whole,  included  educational 
institutions  of  every  grade,  from  the  primary  school  to  the 
university,  controlled  and  supported  by  the  State.  The 
branches  of  the  university  were  to  be  public  secondary 
schools,  occupying  the  place  of  the  numerous  academies  and 
other  private  schools  in  the  older  States.  In  this  respect 
it  differed  from  the  best  systems  of  the  older  States,  an<l 
marked  a  distinct  step  of  progress  in  public  education.  In 
no  one  of  the  older  systems  was  there  a  regular  organic  con- 
nection between  elementary  and  higher  education.  In  the 
new  system,  the  doors  of  the  secondary  schools  opened,  on 
one  side  toward  the  elementary  schools,  on  the  other  side 
toward  the  university.  This  organic  connection,  tempor- 
arily broken  by -the  necessary  abandonment  of  the  branches, 
was  completely  restored  by  the  natural  development  of  the 
public  high  schools. 

2.  Provision  was  made,  in  anticipation,  for  professional 
schools,  not  only  of  law  and  medicine,  but  of  agriculture 
and  for  the  training  of  teachers,  as  organic  parts  of  the 
system.  The  agricultural  college  and  normal  school 
were  to  be  coordinate  members  of  the  great  whole,  and  not 
mere  appendages. 

3.  The  system  provided  better  facilities  for  the  education 


SUMMARY 


63 


of  women  "in  the  higher  iM'anches  of  knowledge"  than  were 
at  that  period  furnished,  to  any  considerable  extent,  by  the 
public  schools  of  the  country.  The  doctrine  of  coeducation, 
even  in  the  primary  schools,  was  not  then  universally  ac- 
cepted ;  and  only  a  few  public  high  schools  for  girls  had 
been  established. 

4.  The  system  anticipated,  in  the  near  future,  elementary 
schools  made  entirely  free  by  public  funds  or  by  general 
taxation,  and  secondary  and  higher  schools  with  only  a 
nominal  tuition  fee.  This  was  not  a  new  feature  so  far  as 
the  elementary  schools  were  concerned.  Coupled  with  the 
idea  of  the  free  elementary  school,  required  attendance  was 
urged  by  Superintendent  Pierce.  This  has  finally  been 
secured,  but  the  proposition  did  not  meet  with  universal 
approval  at  that  period. 

5.  Provision  was  made  for  a  State  superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  wdio  should  be  the  official  head  of  a 
department  of  education,  and  should  have  a  general  super- 
vision over  the  entire  system.  In  a  few  States  an  office  of 
similar  character  had  been  created  by  the  legislature ;  but 
Michigan  may  properly  claim  the  honor  of  being  the  first 
State  to  provide  for  such  an  ofiice  and  such  an  officer  in 
its  constitution.  Many  other  States  have  since  followed  her 
example. 

These  are  the  main  features  of  the  original  Michigan  edu- 
cational system.  It  contains,  either  explicitly  or  implicitly, 
all  the  essential  features  of  the  system  .as  it  exists  to-day, 
after  the  development  of  more  than  three-score  years. 

After  the  passage  of  the  act  organizing  the  system  Mr. 
Pierce  wrote :  "The  foundation  of  the  system  was  laid  by 
the   CQnyention   that   formed   the   constitution.     *     *     *     * 


64  A    GOOD    FOUNDATION 

What  remains  is  to  carry  it  into  successful  oper- 
ation, making  from  time  to  time  such  modifications 
as  experience  shall  determine  to  be  necessary  and 
desirable.  As  the  great  and  leading  object  of  the  system 
is  the  general  improvement  of  the  people  themselves,  and 
the  elevation  of  their  children  to  high  and  useful  attainments, 
respectability,  and  moral  worth,  it  can  scarcely  fail  of  being 
received  with  favor  by  an  enlightened  public,  and  supported 
by  the  concurrent  voice  and  cooperation  of  the  body  of  the 
people,  though  individuals  may  not  approve  it  in  all  its  fea- 
tures. Most  certainly  we  have  laid  the  foundation  for  rais- 
ing a  fabric  of  gigantic  proportions,  and  great  magnificence, 
one  whose  superstructure,  when  duly  perfected  by  the  wise 
hand  and  counsels  of  experience,  can  not  fail  of  being  the 
ornament  and  glory  of  Michigan  in  all  coming  time." 


CHAPTER  V. 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  COMMON  DISTRICT  SCHOOLS. 

The  original  primary  school  law  made  provision  only  for 
the  organization  and  support  of  common  or  elementary 
schools  in  districts  limited  in  extent  to  nine  sections  of  land, 
or  one-fourth  of  a  township.  Practically  the  districts,  by 
action  of  the  township  school  inspectors,  generally  embraced 
much  less  than  nine  sections.  These  schools  constituted  the 
basis  of  the  educational  system,  and  were  universally  re- 
garded as  the  most  important  part  of  it.  They  were  called 
the  "people's  colleges"  and  the  "palladium"  of  free  insti- 
tutions, the  guarantee  of  intelligence  and  virtue. 

They  were  close  to  "the  homes  and  hearths"  of  the  people ; 
they  were,  by  the  provisions  of  law,  directly  controlled  by 
the  people.  They  were  democratic  institutions.  The  peo- 
ple generally  were  extremely  jealous  of  any  proposed 
measure  which  appeared  to  limit  their  authority  over  them, 
or  to  remove  these  from  their  immediate  control.  A  recog- 
nition of  these  facts  is  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  the 
slow  progress  in  the  introduction  of  changes  and  improve- 
ments. 

The  local  machinery  for  the  management  of  district  af- 
fairs has  undergone  very  little  change  in  sixty  years.  The 
original  district  board  still  exists,  with  only  some  slight 
modifications  in  the  powers  and  duties  of  its  three  individual 
members,  and  of  the  board  as  a  whole.  The  evolution  and 
improvements  have  been  mainly  in  the  direction  of  ( i )  stud- 

65 


^^'V£RS/TY 


^c^,  .P! 


66  STUDIES  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 

ies  and  their  arrangement  into  regular  courses;  (2)  of  the 
relation  of  these  schools  to  other  parts  of  the  school  system ; 
(3)  of  means  of  support ;  and  (4)  of  supervision.  Only  the 
first  two  points  will  be  considered  in  this  chapter,  the  others 
being  reserved  for  examination  in  another  connection. 

The  only  reference,  in  the  original  primary  school  law, 
to  the  studies  which  might  be  introduced  and  taught  in  the 
district  schools,  is  found  in  the  authority  granted  to  the 
State  Superintendent  to  make  such  suggestions  as  he  deemed 
best  *'as  to  courses  of  study."  The  provision  relating 
to  the  examination  of  teachers  is  equally  indefinite.  The 
examination  was  to  be"in  regard  to  moral  character,  learn- 
ing, and  ability  to  teach  school."  Directors  were  required 
to  report  the  books  used  in  their  schools ;  from  these  the 
studies  pursued  could  be  inferred.  In  his  report  for  1839 
Superintendent  Pierce  enumerated  the  studies  which,  in  his 
judgment,  should  be  taught  in  the  primary  schools,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  traditional  branches  of  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic,  with  possibly  a  little  of  geography.  Among  these 
were  United  States  and  local  history ;  the  resources,  com- 
merce, productions,  and  industries  of  our  own  State ;  civil 
government ;  something  of  physics ;  physiology  vSO  far  as  to 
give  children  some  appropriate  knowledge  of  their  own 
bodies ;  some  instructions  in  relation  to  the  intellectual, 
moral,  and  religious  natures  of  man ;  and  of  our  own  rela- 
tions to  society,  to  the  State,  and  to  God.  The  reasons  for 
the  introduction  of  these  studies  were  given  with  consider- 
able fullness.  The  fruit  of  his  recommendations  did  not 
appear  until  a  much  later  period. 

The  discussion  of  courses  of  study  by  several  succeeding 
Superintendents  had  reference  only  to  the  union  and  graded 


EFFORTS   OF   MR.    COCHRAN  67 

schools.  No  progress  was  made  in  arranging  definite 
courses  for  the  district  schools  under  the  original  system  of 
township  supervision.  During  the  period  of  county  super- 
intendency  from  1867  to  1875,  some  necessary  preliminary 
work  was  done,  but  this  was  pretty  effectually  undone  under 
the  township  superintendency  which  followed.  In  1881  a 
county  board  of  three  school  examiners  was  created  by  leg- 
islative enactment,  the  secretary  of  the  board  being  its  exec- 
utive officer.  Considerable  improvement  was  made,  or  at 
least  begun,  during  the  existence  of  this  board.  Superin- 
tendent V.  B.  Cochran,  in  his  report  for  188 1,  spoke  with 
some  enthusiasm  of  the  new  law  and  of  the  advantage  which 
he  anticipated  from  its  provisions.  He  discussed  with  some 
detail  the  condition  of  the  rural  schools  and  the  most  serious 
defects  in  their  management ;  among  these  he  put  "the  lack 
of  a  proper  system  of  grading,  classification,  and  course 
of  study."  He  was  confident  that  a  course  could  be  arrang- 
ed, somewhat  more  flexible  than  that  of  the  larger  schools, 
but  yet  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  and  conforming  to 
the  natural  sequence  of  studies.  Mr.  Cochran  prepared  such 
a  course,  and  distributed  it  freely  among  the  teachers  of 
the  district  schools,  with  a  program  for  the  daily  exercises, 
and  earnestly  invoked  "the  aid  of  examiners,  inspectors, 
school  officers,  and  teachers  to  give  it  force  and  effect  in  the 
schools  under  their  charge."  This  was  the  first  course  of 
study  for  the  district  schools  recommended  officially  by  the 
State  department,  and  urged  upon  the  managers  of  these 
schools.  It  may  be  found,  with  the  daily  program  and  ex- 
planations in  the  report  of  1881.  The  course  was  arranged 
on  the  supposition  that  the  school  should  be  divided  into 
three  sections,  the  first  and  second  sections  having  each  two 


68  FAILURE   OF   THE   EFFORTS 

classes,  and  the  third,  or  advanced  section,  only  one  class. 
In  some  exercises  two  classes  were  to  be  united,  and  in  the 
third  section  reading  and  United  States  history  were  to 
alternate.  In  this  way  the  classes  and  exercises  for  a  day 
were  reduce^  to  twenty-two,  the  time  given  for  each  vary- 
ing from  ten  to  twenty  minutes.  The  course  contained  no 
striking  novelties ;  it  provided  for  oral  lessons  in  home  geog- 
raphy, language,  physiology,  history,  and  civil  government, 
and  laid  emphasis  upon  work  of  a  practical  nature. 

Of  this  course  of  study  and  the  efforts  to  introduce  it, 
one  of  the  county  secretaries  said,  in  a  paper  written  some 
years  later :  "The  course  deserved  a  better  fate  than  was  in 
store  for  it.  It  was  scarcely  used.  No  one  seemed  ready 
and  willing  to  go  among  the  teachers  and  explain  its  feasi- 
bility ;  but  it  certainly  laid  a  foundation  for  successive 
courses  of  study  and  opened  up  the  question  of  the  grada- 
tion of  our  rural  schools."  Mr.  Cochran  deserves  much 
credit  for  his  pioneer  work.  A  considerable  number  of  the 
county  examiners  became  thoroughly  interested  in  the  sub- 
ject, and  at  their  annual  meetings  it  received  earnest,  con- 
sideration. The  general  sentiment  seemed  to  be  tiiat  a  reg- 
ular course  of  studies  and  a  grading  of  the  schools  must  go 
together.  There  was  a  tendency  to  emphasize  a  little  too 
strongly  the  necessity  for  this  union.  The  adoption  of  a 
graded  course  of  instruction  was  a  prerequisite  to  the  grad- 
ing of  the  pupils,  and  would  naturally  lead  to  that,  as  sub- 
sequent experience  proved. 

Superintendent  H.  R.  Gass  continued  the  work  begun  by 
Mr.  Cochran,  and  published,  in  his  report  for  1883,  a  course 
of  study,  somewhat  more  extended  than  the  previous  one, 
embracing  all  the  studies  required  for  a  third  grade  teacher's 


I 


COUNTY  SUPERVISION  69 

certificate,  and  fitting  scholars  who  completed  it  for  entrance 
to  a  high  school.  Copies  of  this  revised  course  were  sent 
to  school  officers  and  teachers  throughout  the  state,  and  at 
the  institutes  the  course  was  explained  and  teachers  were 
urged  to  adopt  and  follow  it.  The  county  examiners  gen- 
erally cooperated  with  the  Superintendent  and  some  little 
progress  was  made  "in  its  introduction.  The  lack  of  effi- 
cient and  uniform  county  supervision  was  a  serious  and  al- 
most insviperable  obstacle  in  the  way  of  success.  Four  years 
later,  at  a  meeting  of  county  examiners,  it  was  said :  ''We 
are  all  aware  that  attempts  have  been  made  to  provide  and 
enforce  a  graded  course  of  work  for  the  country  schools. 
These  attempts  have  all  come  to  naught."  The  chief  reason 
assigned  for  this  failure  was  the  want  of  supervision  by 
any  competent  officer.  The  feeling  was  well  nigh  universal 
that  no  permanent  progress  could  be  made  until  the  same 
authority  that  granted  certificates  should  exercise  supervis- 
ion over  the  work  of  those  who  had  been  certificated. 
Efforts  were  therefore  persistently  put  forth  to  secure  a 
return  to  county  supervision  in  some  practicable  form. 
These  efforts  resulted  in  the  passage  of  an  act  in  1887,  mak- 
ing provision  for  some  degree  of  county  supervision.  The 
law  was  amended  and  improved  in  1891,  when  county  com- 
missioners of  schools  were  provided  for  with  sufficient 
authority  to  render  their  services  of  practical  value.  Under 
the  new  law,  the  work  of  arranging  and  introducing  regular 
courses  of  study,  and  of  securing  some  good  degree  of 
grading  in  the  schools,  was  carried  forward  with  commenda- 
ble zeal  and  energy  and  with  constantly  increasing  success. 
In  1 888, Superintendent  Estabrook  published  a  course  more 
complete  than  any  previously  issued  from  the  State  depart- 


70  ANOTHER  COURSE  OF  STUDIES 

ment.  This  was  received  with  favor  by  the  county  examin- 
ers generally,  but  did  not  meet  with  that  hearty  approval 
which  was  desirable.  Some  of  the  county  boards  prepared 
courses  of  their  own,  and  there  was  danger  of  hopeless  con- 
fusion from  a  multiplicity  of  varying  courses  in  adjoining 
counties.  This  danger  was  happily  averted  by  the  joint 
action  of  the  county  secretaries,  and  the  State  Superintend- 
ent. A  committee  of  the  secretaries,  with  the  concurrence  of 
the  Superintendent,  drew  up  a  course  retaining  the  valuable 
features  of  previous  courses,  but  with  such  modification  as 
experience  had  suggested.  This  course  was  published  by 
the  State  department,  with  a  commendatory  introduction 
by  the  Superintendent,  with  a  tabular  synopsis,  a  daily  pro- 
gram, and  with  full  explanations  and  notes  upon  the  various 
topics.  The  course  was  divided  into  eight  grades,  each 
grade  occupying  a  year  of  eight  school  months.  The 
introduction  stated  that  the  aim  in  the  preparation  of  the 
course  had  been,  to  introduce  nothing  new  into  the  schools ; 
to  render  classification  simple  and  easy;  to  regulate  the 
steps  from  grade  to  grade  so  as  to  keep  pupils  interested 
and  prevent  waste  of  time ;  to  put  all  the  schools  of  a  county 
on  one  common  plan ;  to  make  supervision  stronger  and 
more  effective,  and  to  enlist  the  interest  of  school  officers 
and  parents  in  what  the  schools  were  trying  to  do  for  their 
children.  One  list  of  books  helpful  to  teachers,  and  another 
of  books  suitable  for  supplementary  reading  and  school 
libraries  were  appended.  A  second  edition  of  the  course 
was  published  in  1892  by  Superintendent  Ferris  S.  Fitch. 
Several  successive  manuals  and  courses  of  study  have  been 
published  since,  each  presenting  some  new  features,  and 
including  additions  and  improvements  suggested  by  exper- 


SOME    IMPROVEMENT  71 

ience,  and  by  the  results  already  attained.  The  manual 
for  1901,  the  fifth  edition,  revised  and  published  by  Super- 
intendent Delos  Fall,  makes,  including  the  appendix  and 
index,  a  pamphlet  of  160  pages. 

Space  does  not  permit  the  presentation  of  an  epitome  of 
its  contents,  or  of  the  course  of  study  so  elaborately  drawn 
out,  explained,  and  illustrated.  It  may  be  regarded  as  the 
embodied  result  of  the  efforts  thus  far  made  to  secure  a 
systematic  and  graded  course  of  study  and  instruction  for 
the  common  district  schools,  and  as  a  fairly  reliable  index 
of  the  character  and  extent  of  the  work  done  in  them  both 
by  pupils  and  teachers.  Compared  with  the  first  edition 
and  with  the  previous  tentative  courses,  it  enables  one  to 
estimate,  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy,  the  progress  of 
the  rural  schools  of  the  State,  taken  as  a  whole,  during  the 
last  fifteen  years.  If  the  advance  has  not  been  all  that 
could  be  desired,  it.  has  at  least  been  encouraging  and 
affords  reason  for  expecting  even  ''better  things"  in  the 
not  remote  future. 

The  grading  of  the  schools  has,  as  a  rule,  kept  pace  with 
the  introduction  of  the  graded  course  of  studies.  Circum- 
stances have  allowed  the  work  to  be  more  thoroughly  done 
in  some  counties  than  in  others,  but  few  counties  have  failed 
to  show  some  real  and  hopeful  improvement. 

RELATION    OF    THE    DISTRICT    SCHOOLS    TO    OTHER 
PARTS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 

During  the  early  years  of  our  educational  history,  the  dis- 
trict schools  sustained  no  appreciable  relation  to  other  parts 
of  the  school  system,  and  a  very  slight  relation  to  each 


72   RELATION  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  SYSTEM 

other,  even  within  the  same  township.  The  books,  the 
studies,  the  management  and  arrangements  of  each  school, 
with  very  inconsiderable  limitations,  were  determined  by 
the  school  board  of  the  district  or  by  the  wishes  and  whims 
of  parents  and  pupils.  Scholars,  in  most  cases,  studied 
such  branches  as  they  chose  or  as  their  parents  directed,  and 
used  such  books  as  the  family  happened  to  have.  This  state 
of  affairs  could  be  thoroughly  changed  only  through  effi- 
cient supervision  accompanied  by  positive  authority.  As 
a  first  step,  school  boards  were  clothed  with  authority  over 
books  and  studies ;  but,  for  obvious  reasons,  this  authority 
has  been  exercised  very  sparingly  and  reluctantly.  Schools 
in  adjoining  districts,  or  throughout  a  township,  could  have 
been  brought  into  such  relationship  that  pupils  might  pass 
from  one  to  another  without  loss  of  time  or  additional 
expense  for  books  by  the  concurrent  action  of  the  boards 
of  these  districts;  but  this  was  seldom  or  never  done.  A 
relation  between  the  rural  schools  and  the  neighboring 
graded  and  high  schools  was  the  one  most  likely  to  come 
first  into  existence,  not  by  any  legislative  provision,  nor  even 
by  direct  action  of  school  boards,  but  by  considerations  of 
mutual  advantage  and  convenience.  As  early  as  1878  some 
efforts  were  being  made  in  this  direction.  During  a  debate 
in  the  State  Teachers'  Association  in  that  year,  it  was 
stated  that,  "A  vital,  though  not  official,  relation  between 
the  country  and  the  city  schools  may  be  fostered  by,  (i)  a 
distribution  of  city  courses  of  study  among  country  teach- 
ers, (2)  by  influencing  the  pupils  sent  out  -from  graded 
schools  as  teachers  in  the  country  schools  to  fit  their  pupils 
for  the  various  grades  of  city  schools." 

While  effort's  of  this  kind  reached  and  influenced  com- 


NEW  RELATIONS  FORMED  73 

paratively  few  of  the  rural  districts,  they  prepared  the  way 
for  securing  a  closer  voluntary  relation  between  the  country 
and  the  village  and  city  schools.  The  regular  graded  course 
of  studies,  issued  by  the  state  department  with  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  county  commissioners,  has  gradually  been  intro- 
duced into  a  large  number  of  the  country  schools.  With 
the  adoption  of  this  course,  many  of  the  schools  have  be- 
come fairly  well  graded,  as  well  as  could  be  expected  under 
existing  conditions.  Under  a  township  system  the  work 
could  be  rendered  more  complete  and  also  more  permanent. 

In  connection  with  the  introduction  of  a  consecutive 
course  of  studies,  in  many  counties  regular  and  somewhat 
formal  examinations  are  made  of  pupils  who  have  com- 
pleted the  full  course  of  eight  grades.  Diplomas  are  given 
to  the  successful  candidates  for  examination,  and  graduat- 
ing exercises  of  various  kinds  are  held,  which  are  found 
to  stimulate  the  laudable  ambition  of  scholars,  and  to  in- 
crease the  interest  of  parents  in  the  work  of  the  schools. 
By  a  voluntary  arrangement  with  school  officers  and  teach- 
ers, pupils  are  admitted  to  the  neighboring  high  schools 
on  the  presentation  of  these  diplomas.  In  this  way,  without 
the  intervention  of  legal  enactments,  a  relation,  practically 
organic,  is  formed  between  the  rural  elementary  schools 
and  the  secondary  schools  of  a  township  or  county,  and 
through  these  secondary  schools  a  relation  is  created  between 
such  elementary  schools  and  the  university  and  other  higher 
institutions  of  learning.  An  approximation  is  thus  made 
toward  the  ideal  system  of  public  instruction,  and  the  ele- 
mentary common  schools  are  greatly  benefited. 

The  extent  of  the  influence  of  these  various  elements  of 
progress  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that,  during  the 


74     RELATION  TO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 

year  1900,  in  one  county  450  pupils  were  examined,  of 
whom  185  received  diplomas;  in  another  county  300  were 
examined  and  'jy  received  diplomas;  in  another  county  107 
diplomas  were  granted. 

The  rural  schools  have  been  placed  in  another  important 
organic  relation  by  direct  legislative  enactment.  In  1897 
the  Legislature  passed  an  act  requiring  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  to  prepare  a  course  of  study  for  dis- 
trict schools,  to  be  known  as  "The  agricultural  college 
course."  The  course  must  include  the  studies  then  required 
for  a  third  grade  teacher's  certificate.  The  completion  of 
this  course,  evidenced  by  a  diploma  or  a  certificate  signed 
by  the  county  commissioner  of  schools,  entitles  a  student 
to  admission  to  the  freshman  class  of  the  college.  This  act 
is  of  importance  for  two  reasons.  It  elevates  the  cliaracier 
of  the  district  schools  by  putting  them  into  organic  legal 
relation  with  one  of  the  higher  educational  institutions  of 
the  state,  and  it  gives  the  State  Superintendent,  for  the 
first  time,  authority  to  prescribe  a  uniform  obligatory 
course  of  study  for  these  schools.  Commenting  on  this  act, 
the  State  Superintendent  said,  in  his  report  for  1897:  "I 
wish  to  congratulate  the  people  of  the  state  on  the  passage 
of  the  law  recognizing  a  graduate  from  the  eighth  grade 
of  a  country  school  as  a  suitable  person  to  be  received,  with- 
out further  examination,  to  the  freshman  class  of  one  of  our 
state  educational  institutions.  *  *  *  This  step  on  the 
part  of  our  legislature  seems  not  only  consistent,  but  a  very 
helpful  one  to  the  young  people  of  our  country  schools  who 
desire  to  enter  higher  institutions  of  learning."  In  view 
of  this  brief  record  of  the  progress  of  the  elementary  dis- 
trict schools,  arid  of  existing  conditions  and  prospects,  it 
may  be  said  that  there  is  reason  for  feeling  a  very  moderate 
degree  of  satisfaction  with  the  results  already  attained,  and 
for  indulging  in  more  hopeful  anticipations  for  the  future. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  UNION  AND  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 

In  the  first  school  law  no  provision  was  made  for  the 
union  of  districts  or  for  the  grading  of  schools.  These 
features  could  not  then  be  anticipated  or  provided  for.  The 
older  States  had  only  just  begun  to  consider  them  in  a  ten- 
tative way.  The  first  suggestion  by  our  State  department 
of  the  probable  advantages  which  might  follow  from  unit- 
ing contiguous  districts  and  grading  the  pupils,  appears 
in  the  report  of  Superintendent  Com  stock  for  the  year  1844. 
After  referring  to  the  evils  resulting  from  the  multiplication 
of  small  districts,  he  wrote:  ''The  consolidation  of  dis- 
tricts in  our  cities  and  rising  villages  is  highly  desirable. 
A  district  thus  augmented  would  be  rendered  capable  of 
erecting  and  furnishing  a  building  containing  four  rooms 
for  graduated  schools.  The  rule  of  graduation  should  have 
reference  alone  to  degrees  of  scholarship.  *  *  ^  *  Xhe 
graduated  schools  would  obviate  the  necessity  of  select  sem- 
inaries. The  necessity  of  select  schools  is  founded  in  the 
imperfect  character  of  the  primary  schools ;  elevate  these, 
and  the  select  schools  will  be  superseded." 

''In  order  to  enable  a  district  to  carry  out  a  plan  analogous 
to  the  one  intimated,  it  will  be  necessary  to  invoke  the  aid 
of  legislation,"  he  said.  Authority  must  be  given  to  raise 
more  money  by  taxation  for  buildings,  apparatus,  and  other 
school  appliances.  A  little  of  detail  in  tracing  the  develop- 
ment of  the  union  and  graded  system  is  necessary  to  enable 

75 


76  CONDITION    IN    1840 

the  people  and  the  teachers  of  today  to  appreciate  the  fact 
that  the  ''old-fashioned"  district  school,  controlled  by  local 
officers  and  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  many  excellent  people  as 
the  "palladium  of  our  free  institutions,"  did  not  give  place 
to  the  modern  graded  school,  even  in  the  cities  and  large 
villages,  without  a  struggle.  The  present  opposition  to  the 
"township  unit  system"  reminds  one  of  thf\  similar  oppo- 
sition to  the  early  union  schools.  It  cost  much  persistent 
effort  to  effect  the  transformation,  and  to  overcome  old 
prejudices  and  long-established  habits.  In  the  end  the 
township  system  will  come,  as  the  union  and  graded  sys- 
tem came. 

In  the  year  1840,  and  even  later,  the  largest  towns  in  the 
State  were  divided  and  sub-divided  into  small  school  dis- 
tricts, and  the  schools  were  "kept"  by  the  ordinary  teachers 
of  that  period.  Detroit  had  no  public  schools  prior  to  1841, 
and  for  several  years  after  that  date,  the  city  was  divided 
into  such  small  districts.  In  1838  Henry  Barnard  was  lec- 
turing in  the  principal  cities  and  villages  of  Connecticut 
on  the  advantages  of  graded  schools  and  explaining  the 
nature  of  these  schools.  The  establishment  of  the  graded 
system  in  that  State  was  attended  with  great  difficulties, 
and  went  on  very  slowly.  A  few  such  schools  were  organ- 
ized in  New  York  as  early  as  1840.  In  1855  Ohio  had 
nearly  a  hundred  and  fifty  of  them  and  public  sentiment 
was  becoming  strong  in  their  favor.  The  leading  educa- 
tors of  Michigan,  as  indicated  by  the  language  of  Mr. 
Comstock  in  1844,  were  beginning  to  appreciate  their  value, 
and  the  Legislature  was  induced  to  provide  for  a  trial  of 
the  system.  In  the  school  code  of  1846  this  section  ap- 
peared:    "Whenever  the  board  of  inspectors  of  any  town- 


THE  FIRST  STEPS  TOWARD  UNION  77 

ship  shall  deem  that  the  interest  of  any  of  the  schools  will 
be  best  promoted  by  so  doing,  they  may  form  a  single  dis- 
trict out  of  any  two  or  more  districts  therein,  and  may  clas- 
sify the  pupils  in  such  districts  into  two  or  more  classes, 
according  to  their  proficiency  and  advancement  in  learning, 
and  require  that  such  pupils  be  taught  in  distinct  schools  or 
departments  as  classified  by  them."  The  union  district 
could  have  as  many  houses,  if  necessary,  and  raise  as  much 
money  by  taxation,  as  the  several  districts  could  before 
they  were  united.  The  act  was  imperfect  but  was  suffi- 
cient for  a  beginning.  In  1849  amendments  were  made 
providing  that  in  districts  having  one  hundred  scholars 
between  the  ages  of  four  and  eighteen,  the  district  board 
might  be  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  four  trustees.  The 
duty  of  grading  and  classifying  was  transferred  to  this 
enlarged  board.  It  was  also  provided  that  rate  bills  might 
be  graded  according  to  the  studies  pursued,  and  that  the 
boundaries  of  the  districts  should  not  be  changed  without 
the  written  consent  of  the  district  boards. 

Gradually  the  people  of  the  larger  villages  began  to  take 
advantage  of  the  provisions  of  the  law,  and  during  the 
years  from  1846  to  1850  several  union  schools  were  estab- 
lished, and  in  some  cases  ''large  and  commodious  school 
houses"  were  erected. 

In  his  report  for  1847  Superintendent  Ira  Mayhew  de- 
voted considerable  space  to  setting  forth  the  peculiar  advan- 
tages of  graded  schools.  Condensed,  the  following  were 
the  chief  advantages  claimed :  They  were  freely  open  to 
all ;  they  are  democratic  institutions,  since  they  bring  to- 
gether the  children  of  all  classes  on  terms  of  perfect  equal- 
ity; they  are  better  than  our  common  or  the  select  schools, 


78  ADVANTAGES  OF  GRADED  SCHOOLS 

because  the  principle  of  division  of  labor  enables  teachers 
to  give  more  time  and  attention  to  individual  pupils,  since 
the  number  of  classes  assigned  to  teachers  will  be  less  and 
the  recitation  periods  will  be  longer;  the  courses  of  study 
may  be  more  extended,  and  the  work  in  them  more  thor- 
oughly done  than  in  the  ordinary  schools:  the  cost  of 
education  will  be  less  in  union  schools  than  in  private 
select  schools ;  union  schools  are  very  good  substitutes  for 
normal  schools  or  teachers'  seminaries,  and  will  accomplish 
much  in  the  improvement  of  the  teachers  of  the  common 
schools ;  the  discipline  and  government  of  union  graded 
schools  are  better  than  in  select  schools  for  obvious  reasons. 

Arguments  to  prove  the  advantages  of  graded  schools 
seem  an  absurd  waste  of  time  and  patience  in  the  year  1900 ; 
they  were  absolutely  necessary  in  the  year  1847,  ^^^  even 
later.  In  his  report  for  the  next  year  Mr.  Mayhew  states 
that  union  schools  were  fast  gaining  the  confidence  of  the 
public ;  were  generally  surpassing  the  expectations  of  their 
founders ;  and  he  adds,  they  "may  be  made  to  constitute 
a  connecting  link  between  the  ordinary  common  school  and 
the  State  university." 

Naturally,  at  first,  the  union  schools  were  urged  as  the 
best  means  for  supplying  educational  needs  of  the  immediate 
localities  in  which  they  were  situated.  The  idea  of  the 
''connecting  link"  was  not  emphasized  and  would  not  have 
been  an  effective  argument  with  the  people  generally  at 
that  time.     At  a  little  later  period  it  had  proper  influence. 

For  a  few  years  the  reports  from  the  newly  organized 
graded  schools  were  irregular  and  incomplete.  Hence  it 
is  impossible  to  trace  their  development  w^th  any  large 
degree  of  accuracy.     In  1857,  in  response  to  a  circular  sent 


REPORTS  FROM  UNION  SCHOOLS  79 

out  by  Superintendent  Gregory,  reports  of  considerable  full- 
ness were  received  from  twenty-seven  of  these  schools. 
The  presumption  is  that  nearly  all  the  completely  organized 
schools  made  reports.  The  following  is  a  list  of  those 
established  before  i860,  so  far  as  known :  Flint,  1846 ; 
Jonesville  and  Battle  Creek,  1847;  Grand  Rapids,  1848: 
Adrian,  Port  Huron,  and  Ypsilanti,  1849;  Tecumseh  and 
Lansing,  1852 ;  Coldwater,  Eaton  Rapids,  Plymouth,  and 
East  Saginaw,  1853;  Bay  City,  1854;  Sturgis,  1855;  Ann 
Arbor,  Dexter,  and  Niles,  1856;  Cassopolis,  and  Dowagiac, 
1857;  Fenton,  and  St.  Clair,  1858;  Charlotte,  Clinton,  Kal- 
amazoo, and  Monroe,  1859.  After  i860  organization  went 
on  more  rapidly,  although  in  not  a  few  cases  against  strong 
opposition.  Most  of  the  schools  named  above  reported 
high  school  departments  of  varying  degrees  of  excellence. 
The  best  organized  and  equipped  were  those  of  Adrian, 
Ann  Arbor,  Battle  Creek,  Coldwater,  Jonesville,  Kalama- 
zoo, Monroe,  and  Ypsilanti.  In  i860  Detroit  reported  a 
high  school  with  a  single  teacher  and  an  average  attendance 
of  thirty-seven  pupils. 

The  State  Teachers  Association,  in  1854,  resolved  that: 
*'we  hail  the  establishment  of  union  schools  as  a  great  im- 
provement in  educational  machinery."  Today  such  a  reso- 
lution would  be  regarded  much  as  one  would  be  which 
affirmed  that  sunshine  and  rain  are  great  blessings,  and 
books  and  libraries  are  of  much  service.  In  the  year  1854 
the  resolution  was  needed  and  was  the  natural  outcome  of 
an  earnest  desire  to  influence  pubHc  sentiment.  This  senti- 
ment was  still  divided  and  in  many  localities  the  opposition 
to  graded  schools  was  very  pronounced  and  active,  even 
their    warmest   advocates    were   not    entirely   confident   of 


8o  INQUIRIES  AS  TO  RESULTS 

their  success  and  permanency.  It  was  feared  by  not  a 
few  real  friends  of  educational  progress  that  the  bringing 
together,  upon  the  same  grounds  and  into  the  same  build- 
ings, of  large  numbers  of  children  of  different  ages  and 
of  varying  characters,  would  be  attended  by  dangers  and 
evils  of  a  grave  nature.  It  was  feared  that  the  morals  of 
the  better  class  of  pupils  would  suffer  serious  harm,  and 
that  proper  discipline  and  good  government  could  be  main- 
tained only  with  extreme  difficulty,  if  at  all. 

To  obtain  information  upon  these  and  other  points.  Super- 
intendent Mayhew  issued,  in  the  year  1857,  a  circular  to 
the  officers  of  union  schools,  asking  definite  answers  to 
twelve  questions.  In  1859,  Superintendent  Gregory  sent 
out  a  similar  circular,  requesting  replies  to  eighteen  care- 
fully prepared  inquiries.  Among  the  questions  in  these 
circulars  were  these :  "Do  advantages  or  disadvantages 
result  from  the  co-education  of  the  sexes ;  has  the  congre- 
gation of  large  numbers  of  children  seriously  increased  the 
disorders  in  school  government  or  been  the  occasion  of 
immorality ;  if  the  school  has  at  any  period  failed  of  suc- 
cess, to  what  was  the  failure  to  be  attributed;  what  has 
been  the  general  influence  of  the  system  of  union  schools  on 
the  attendance  of  the  children  at  school,  both  as  to  the  num- 
ber in  attendance  and  their  regularity,  and  upon  the  gen- 
eral progress  in  study;  what  is  the  general  estimation  in 
which  the  school  is  held  among  the  people,  and  how  does 
this  compare  with  the  interest  felt  in  the  primary  schools 
in  your  section  of  the  State." 

Generally  the  replies  to  these  inquiries  were  decidedly 
favorable  to  the  union  and  graded  system.  There  had  been 
some  partial  failures,  due,  it  is  said,  to  unfavorable  local 


ADVANTAGES  OF  GRADED  SCHOOLS  8i 

conditions.  The  gathering  of  large  numbers  of  children 
upon  the  same  grounds  had  not  proved  detrimental  to  mor- 
als, although  it  had  imposed  extra  care  and  watchfulness 
upon  teachers.  Nearly  all  the  union  schools  had  been  made 
free  to  resident  pupils  by  the  voluntary  action  of  the  voters 
in  the  districts.  In  a  few  cases  tuition  fees  were  charged 
for  some  of  the  advanced  studies  in  the  high  school  depart- 
ments. For  several  successive'  years  the  State  reports  de- 
voted considerable  space  to  the  discussion  of  the  advantages 
offered  by  these  schools  and  to  reports  as  to  their  conditions 
and  progress. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  summary  of  the 
advantages  of  graded  schools  made  by  Mr.  Mayhew.  To 
impress  these  more  thoroughly  upon  the  people,  Mr.  Greg- 
ory in  his  report  for  1861,  gave  an  extended  recapitulation 
of  the  benefits  to  be  expected  from  them.  His  main  points 
were  the  following:  ''They  economize  the  time  of  teach- 
ers ;  the  teaching  is  better ;  pupils  are  more  thoroughly  in- 
structed, and  make  more  rapid  progress ;  each  class  receives 
its  due  share  of  time  and  attention ;  all  school  arrangements 
can  be  better  adapted  to  the  age  and  capacities  of  different 
classes  of  pupils ;  a  much  larger  number  of  pupils  will  be 
able  to  pursue  advanced  studies  without  increasing  their 
stay  in  school ;  they  afford  special  facilities  for  teaching  the 
higher  branches  of  study  and  thus  serve  as  secondary 
schools ;  the  high  school  grades  stimulate  pupils  in  the  lower 
grades ;  they  offer  the  advantages  of  higher  education  to 
all  children  without  regard  to  parentage  or  wealth ;  they 
make  it  possible  to  have  longer  terms  of  school,  better  build- 
ings and  a  better  supply  of  apparatus,  and  other  means  of 
instruction;  they  secure  a  better  class  of  teachers,  and  by 


82  IMPROVEMENT  IN  THE  LAW 

bringing  more  teachers  together,  furnish  a  stimukis  for  im- 
provement on  their  part ;  they  can  be  better  and  more  easily 
governed ;  the  animating  and  inspiring  influence  of  large 
numbers  in  the  same  school  is  of  great  value ;  the  character 
of  the  school  boards  will  be  improved  by  the  larger  inter- 
ests involved  in  the  school ;  the  people  generally  will  have 
a  higher  regard  for  education ;  thorough  supervision  of  all 
the  schools  will  be  made  practicable ;  and  finally  the  graded 
school  is  the  most  economical  and  most  efficient  form  of 
school  yet  discovered."  The  educational  history  of  the 
State  during  nearly  half  a  century  enables  one  to  decide 
whether  the  advantages  claimed  for  graded  schools  have 
been  realized. 

The  provisions  of  the  school  law  relating  to  graded 
schools,  were  gradually  modified  and  improved,  as  exper- 
ience suggested.  An  act  of  1859  authorized  any  single  dis- 
trict, or  any  district  formed  by  the  union  of  two  or  more 
districts,  containing  more  than  two  hundred  children  of 
school  age,  to  elect  a  district  board  of  six  trustees,  some 
years  later  made  five.  This  board  was  authorized  to  grade 
the  school,  employ  all  necessary  teachers,  fix  rates  of  tui- 
tion for  non-resident  scholars,  establish  a  high  school  when 
directed  to  do  so  by  vote  of  the  district,  and  to  make  all 
necessary  rules  and  regulations  for  the  management  of  the 
school.  Tuition  could  be  charged  in  the  high  school  to 
resident  pupils,  or  the  district  could  make  the  school  free 
in  all  grades  to  residents,  and  raise  by  tax  the  funds  needed 
for  the  support  of  the  schools. 

The  main  features  of  this  law  have  remained  without 
essential  changes  to  the  present  time.  The  number  of 
children  necessary  for  the  organization  of  a  graded  school 


THE  TOWNSHIP  DISTRICT  83 

was  soon  after  changed  from  two  to  one  hundred.  By  sub- 
sequent legislation  the  powers  of  the  school  board  have  been 
slightly  modified  and  enlarged. 

The  growth  of  the  union  graded  schools,  by  decades  dur- 
ing the  half  century,  has  been  as  follows :  In  the  year  1850 
there  were  7;  i860,  85;*  1870,  248;*  1880,  389;  1890,  513; 
1900,  711. 

The  township  school  district  is  a  natural  outgrowth  of 
the  union  district ;  it  is  simply  the  union  of  all  the  districts 
of  a  township,  managed  by  a  township  school  board,  and 
supported  by  a  township  tax. 

Prior  to  1891  eight  such  districts  had  been  organized  by 
special  acts  of  the  Legislature.  In  that  year  a  general  law 
was  enacted,  allowing  any  township  in  the  Upper  Penin- 
sula, to  organize  itself  into  a  single  district.  In  1893  there 
were  (^y  township  districts;  in  1898,  115;  in  1900,  119.  It 
has  been  impossible  up  to  this  time  to  secure  the  passage  of 
a  general  law  for  the  establishment  of  township  districts  in 
the  Lower  Peninsula.  It  is,  however,  only  a  question  of 
a  little  time,  as  the  organization  of  "rural  high  schools," 
which  have  been  provided  for,  can  be  effectually  secured 
only  by  township  action.  At  no  distant  day  the  benefits  of 
the  graded  system  will  be  extended  to  the  people  of  the 
whole  State.  With  this  will  come  the  era  of  good  roads 
and  the  free  transportation  of  pupils  wherever  such  trans- 
portation is  desirable.  The  day  of  the  old-time,  isolated, 
ungraded  district  school  has  nearly  passed. 


*Report  of  1880,  p.  334. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
SECONDARY   EDUCATION.— THE   HIGH    SCHOOLS. 

Under  the  Territorial  government  secondary  education, 
including  preparation  for  higher  education,  was  to  be  pro- 
vided through  schools  established  and  controlled  by  the 
University.  The  first  constitution  of  the  State,  in  efifect, 
continued  this  method  by  providing  for  the  establishment 
of  branches  of  the  University.  Upon  certain  conditions 
the  Regents  of  the  University  and  the  Superintendent  of 
public  instruction  were  authorized,  by  legislative  enact- 
ment, to  organize  branches  in  the  various  counties.  These 
schools  were  to  serve  a  three-fold  purpose,  provide  for  local 
needs,  fit  students  for  the  University,  and  prepare  teachers 
for  the  primary  schools.  This  last  function  will  be  touched 
upon  in  another  connection. 

Branches  were  established  at  Pontiac,  Monroe,  Niles, 
Tecumseh,  Detroit,  Kalamazoo,  Romeo,  and  White  Pigeon. 
The  school  at  Ann  Arbor  was  spoken  of  sometimes  as  a 
branch  and  sometimes  as  a  preparatory  department  of  the 
University.  Institutions,  sometimes  called  branches,  were 
located  at  Mackinac,  Jackson,  Utica,  Cold  water,  and  Ypsi- 
lanti,  but  no  appropriations  were  made  by  the  regents  for 
the  support  of  these.  Departments  for  young  ladies  were 
connected  with  the  branches  at  Monroe,  Niles,  Tecumseh, 
White  Pigeon,  Romeo,  and  Kalamazoo,  but  generally  only 
English   studies   were   taught   in   these   departments.     The 

84 


WHY  THE  BRANCHES  FAILED  85 

branches  had  uncertain  and  intermittent  lives,  and  after 
1849  the  regents  made  no  appropriations  for  them. 

It  has  been  customary,  in  some  quarters,  to  cast  ridicule 
upon  this  scheme  for  establishing  branches  of  the  Univer- 
sity as  secondary  and  preparatory  schools,  and  to  regard 
it  as  one  of  the  vagaries  of  an  over-excited  imagination. 
It  requires  no  extraordinary  powers  of  prevision  to  proph- 
esy after  the  event.  The  plan  soon  proved  to  be  impracti- 
cable at  that  time,  and  in  the  form  proposed.  It  exists, 
however,  at  this  time,  in  all  its  essential  features,  through 
the  afiBliation  of  the  high  schools  with  the  University. 

Superintendent  Pierce  and  his  immediate  successors 
attached  great  importance  to  the  branches^  seemed  indeed 
to  consider  these  schools  as  absolutely  necessary  to  the  unity 
and  efficiency  of  the  public  educational  system  of  the  State 
as  a  whole. 

When  it  became  evident  that  they  could  not  be  sustained 
from  the  University  funds,  nor  from  local  contributions  or 
local  taxation,  Mr.  Pierce  urged  that,  since  one  of  their 
I  purposes  was  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  primary 
\  schools,  it  would  be  "just  and  right"  that  a  portion  of  the 
\  income  from  the  primary  school  fund  should  be  appropri- 
lated  for  their  support.  He  urged  also  that  some  part  of 
the  proceeds  of  the  "Salt  Spring"  lands  should  be  devoted 
to  this  object.  Neither  of  these  recommendations  was  con- 
/sidered  favorably  by  the  Legislature,  and  the  branches  were 
left  to  their  fate.  Some  of  them  were  transformed  into 
private  schools ;  others  ceased  to  exist.  The  plan  of  provid- 
ing public  secondary  education  by  means  of  branches  ot 
the  University  proved  a  failure,  not  because  it  was,  in  itself, 
chimerical,  but  because  the  educational  resources  and  edu- 


86  ESTIMATION  PUT  UPON  THE  BRANCHES 

cational  sentiment  of  the  State  were  not  sufficiently  devel- 
oped to  make  it  successful. 

The  estimation  put  upon  the  branches  is  indicated  by 
numerous  official  utterances,  of  which  only  a  few  can  be 
quoted.  A  legislative  committee  in  1840  said :  "li  the  sys- 
tem is  carried  out  as  commenced,  the  Regents  will  command 
the  services  of  the  ablest  men  in  the  country  to  conduct 
these  branches.  In  other  States,  the  preparation  for  col- 
lege is  left  to  voluntary^,  independent  academies,  no  two  fol- 
lowing the  same  course  of  instruction,  nor  preparing  stu- 
dents for  any  institution  in  particular.  *  *  *  :^  Mich- 
igan, by  putting  the  branches  on  the  footing  of  permanence 
and  respectability  with  the  University,  and  by  enforcing 
uniformity  of  studies,  has  the  advantage  of  having  the  best 
things  taught,  and  from  first  to  last,  taught  in  the  best 
manner."  In  185 1  the  State  Superintendent  said:  ''No 
misfortune  has  ever  occurred  to  this  institution  (The  Uni- 
versity) equal  in  extent  to  that  which  has  grown  out  of  that 
system  of  policy  which  has  permitted,  or  rendered  necessary, 
perhaps,  the  abandonment  of  branches ;  and  it  would  seem 
to  be  of  the  first  importance,  if  the  means  of  the  institution 
will  permit  the  outlay  of  a  large  amount,  of  capital  for  any 
purpose,  that  it  should  be  directed  into  this  channel.  It  is 
the  settled  judgment  of  this  department  that  so  soon,  at  least, 
as  the  debt  (upon  the  University  fund)  is  extinguished, 
further  effort  and  renewed  exertion  should  be  made,  that 
the  University  may  represent  itself  in  the  different  sections 
of  the  State  through  its  branches."  The  public  sentiment 
of  the  State  favored  the  establishment  of  branches  even  at 
the  risk  of  abandoning  the  central  institution  itself.  A 
legislative  act  of  1851  prohibited  the  regents  from  erecting 


SUPPLY  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  87 

additional  buildings  on  the  University  grounds  until  one 
branch  had  been  organized  in  each  judicial  district,  and  gave 
them  authority  to  adopt  as  a  branch,  under  certain  limita- 
tions, any  chartered  literary  institution  in  the  State.  A 
fortunate  judicial  decision  relieved  the  regents  from  the 
dilemma  in  which  this  action  of  the  Legislature  had  placed 
them ;  but  destroyed  the  last  hope  of  providing  for  second- 
ary education  through  the  branches. 

After  the  final  abandonment  of  the  branches,  secondary 
education  was  left  for  some  years,  to  be  furnished  mainly 
by  private  schools  and  by  denominational  academies  and 
"institutes,"  at  that  period  a  favorite  name  for  schools  of 
secondary  work.  Several  of  these  institutions  still  exist 
in  changed  form,  having  been  developed  into  colleges,  or 
transformed  into  public  high  schools.  Among  these  sur- 
vivals are  the  Kalamazoo  Literary  Institute,  now  Kalama- 
zoo College ;  Olivet  Collegiate  Institute,  now  Olivet  Col- 
lege ;  Raisin  Institute,  now  Raisin  Valley  Seminary ;  Spring 
Arbor  Seminary,  now  become,  by  a  series  of  changes,  Albion 
College ;  Ypsilanti  Seminary,  now  Ypsilanti  High  School ; 
and  an  Academy,  which  by  removal  and  transformation  has 
become  Hillsdale  College. 

The  need  of  good  secondary  and  preparatory  schools  be- 
came so  urgent  that  propositions  were  made  to  grant  State 
aid,  upon  some  carefully  prescribed  conditions,  to  some  of 
the  private  and  chartered  institutions.  Superintendent  Sher- 
man thought  "the  proceeds  of  the  principal  arising  from  the 
sale  of  Swamp  Lands"  might  wisely  be  applied  to  this  pur- 
pose. Superintendent  Mayhew,  in  his  report  for  1855-56, 
wrote :  "It  is  respectfully  submitted  whether  justice  to 
this  class  of  institutions,  and  a  due  regard  to  the  interests 


88  AID  ASKED  FOR  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS 

of  sound  learning  and  general  education  in  the  State,  do 
not  require  the  Legislature  to  make  some  suitable  provision 
for  their  encouragement.  *  *  *  *  fi^^  amount  of  assist- 
ance rendered  them  might  be  equitably  arranged,  having 
reference  to  the  number  of  scholars  in  attendance  upon 
them  that  are  prepared  to  pursue — and  are  actually  pur- 
suing— an  advanced  course  of  scientific  and  classical  study, 
such  as  is  requisite  for  admission  to  the  State  University, 
and  to  the  colleges  of  our  country."  Various  efforts  were 
made,  during  several  successive  years,  to  obtain  legislative 
action  in  the  direction  suggested,  but  every  effort  ended  in 
failure.  No  secondary  schools  were  established  or  efficient- 
ly aided  by  direct  legislation.  The  natural  and  progressive 
development  of  the  graded  school  system  gave  to  the  State, 
after  some  years  of  experimenting,  by  the  voluntary  action 
of  local  communities,  an  adequate  number  of  public  second- 
ary and  preparatory  institutions  of  high  character.  This 
result  was  not  attained,  however,  without  some  severe 
struggles. 

HIGH  SCHOOL  DEPARTMENTS. 

The  statute  of  1859  gave  the  voters  in  graded  school  dis- 
tricts authority  to  establish  high  schools  and  to  provide  for 
their  support  by  taxation.  If  the  graded  schools  were  to 
serve  as  the  "connecting  link"  between  the  primary  schools 
and  the  University  or  the  college,  and  thus  give  unity  to 
the  public  school  system,  such  departments  were  an  abso- 
lute necessity.  This  was  universally  admitted,  and  the 
authority  to  support  these  departments  by  public  funds 
was  not,  at  that  time,  very  seriously  questioned ;  though 


SUPPORT  OF  HIGH   SCHOOLS  89 

there  were,  from  the  first,  even  among  the  most  intelHgent 
citizens,  many  who  doubted  and  a  few  who  denied  the 
right  of  a  district  to  use  the  proceeds  of  the  primary  school 
fund  to  support  high  schools.  A  very  few  went  further 
and  questioned  the  right  to  levy  and  collect  a  tax  to  pay 
for  instruction  in  the  higher  branches,  especially  in  the 
ancient  languages,  or  to  pay  the  salary  of  a  general  super- 
intendent of  schools.  The  questions  then  raised  were  vita!. 
Until  they  were  settled  by  some  competent  tribunal  the  pub- 
lic high  school  could  not  be  regarded  as  a  permanent  insti- 
tution. Its  life  was  in  constant  danger,  and  public  opinion 
must  continue  in  a  condition  of  unstable  equilibrium.  The 
actual  state  of  afifairs  was  stated  in  a  paper,  read  before  the 
State  Teachers'  Association  in  1872,  by  city  sperintendent 
W»  S.  Perry,  as  follows :  "To  any  close  observer  of  edu- 
cational movements,  it  must  be  evident  that  our  graded 
schools,  in  respect  to  the  proper  position,  scope,  and  func- 
tion of  the  high  school,  have  reached  an  historical  crisis. 
J  Considerations  of  economy,  the  purpose  and  relative  value 
of  secondary  education,  and  the  admission  to  the  Univer- 
j  sity  of  graduates  from  some  of  our  high  schools,  are  forcing 
/  the  high  school  question  into  fresh  prominence  and  to  new 
decisions,  if  not  to  new  departures.  *  *  >k  *  q^^^  union 
schools  have,  indeed,  been  the  glory  of  our  school  system. 
The  high  school,  however,  has  not  been  a  great  success. 
Quite  generally  it  has  struggled  against  both  natural  difficul- 
ties and  malignant  enemies.  In  a  few  schools  it  has  fought 
its  way  to  recognition  and  public  confidence.  In  many  it 
holds  a  fitful  existence  by  a  precarious  tenure.  The  ques- 
tion now  is,  what  shall  be  done  with  it?" 

In   his   report   for    1872,   Superintendent   Hosford   said : 


90  CLAIMS  AS  TO  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

"No  little  excitement  has  arisen  in  some  places  from  the 
discussion  of  the  question  of  the  legality  of  public  high 
schools.  The  claim  has  been  made  that  this  department 
formed  no  part  of  the  school  system  recognized  by  law,  and 
that  all  taxes  imposed  to  raise  money  to  sustain  these  schools 
were  illegal.  It  is  claimed  to  be  unjust  to  sustain  such  a 
school.  The  law  contemplated  that  such  schools  should 
be  self-supporting  by  charge  of  tuition.  The  law  merely 
provides  that  every  child  shall  be  educated  up  to  a  certain 
point,  but  it  makes  no  provision  by  taxation  for  giving 
instruction  beyond  the  ordinary  English  branches,  and  the 
school  boards  exceed  their  powers  in  providing  for  high  .. 
schools  at  public  expenseJlFTs""aIso'cohtended  that  these 
boards  have  no  right  to  employ  superintendents  and  pay 
them  from  the  public  money.  *  *  *  *  If  these  state- 
ments were  mere  rumors  or  complaints  made  by  thought- 
less men,  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  tax  they  have  to 
pay,  they  would  not  be  worthy  of  the  least  notice ;  but  since 
they  come  from  men  of  character  and  standing,  who  have 
reputations  as  lawyers,  and  who  profess  to  have  given  the 
subject  careful  consideration,  I  have  deemed  it  best  to  call 
the  attention  of  the  Legislature  to  the  subject.  *  *  *  * 
All  must  see  that  it  is  a  question  vital  to  the  interests  of 
our  schools,  and  indeed  to  the  whole  school  system.  To 
attempt  to  make  the  high  school  departments  self-sustain- 
ing by  charging  tuition  would  be  to  abolish  them.  Our 
graded  schools,  without  the  high  school,  would  soon  fall 
back  to  the  condition  of  the  district  schools,  and  the  whole 
system  would  be  shorn  of  its  unity  and  glory." 

It  became  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  interests  of 
education  in  the   State  that  the  question  of  the  right  of 


THE  KALAMAZOO  CASE  91 

i  school  boards  to  establish  and  provide  by  taxation  for  the 
^iipport  of  high  schools,  should  be  authoritatively  settled. 
[n  order  to  secure  a  decision  from  the  courts  upon  this 
natter,  Hon.  Charles  E.  Stuart,  an  ex-United  States  sen- 
ator, a  citizen  of  Kalamazoo,  commenced  a  suit  in  the  cir- 
cuit court  of  that  judicial  district.  The  proceedings,  for 
that  reason,  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  "Ksiktmazoo. 
ca§£jl — The  judge  of  that  circuit  delivered  a  carefully  pre- 
pared opinion  sustaining  the  right  of  a  school  district  to 
establish  a  high  school,  and  to  impose  taxes  and  use  public 
school  fvmds  for  its  support.  The  case  went,  as  was  expect- 
ed by  all  parties,  to  the  State  Supreme  court  for  final  decis- 
ion. The  decision  was  rendered  in  July,  1874,  being  written 
by  Justice  T.  M.  Cooley.  His  statement  of  the  case  is  so 
^lear  and  definite  that  I  copy  a  portion  of  the  introduction 
^or  the  purpose  of  showing  the  vital  importance  not  only 
to  the  high  schools  and  to  secondary  education,  but  to  our 
educational  system  as  a  whole,  of  this  deliverance  of  the 
highest  judicial  authority  of  the  State.  He  said:  "The 
bill  in  this  case  is  filed  to  restrain  the  collection  of  such  por- 
tion of  the  school  taxes  assessed  against  complainants  for 
the  year  1872,  as  have  been  voted  for  the  support  of  the 
high  school  in  that  village,  and  for  the  payment  of  the  sal- 
ary of  the  superintendent.  While  nominally  this  is  the  end 
sought,  the  real  purpose  of  this  is  wider  and  vastly  more 
comprehensive  than  this  brief  statement  would  indicate, 
inasmuch  as  it  seeks  a  judicial  determination  of  the  right 
of  school  authorities,  in  what  are  called  union  school  dis- 
tricts of  the  State,  to  levy  taxes  upon  the  general  public  for 
the  support  of  what,  in  this  State,  are  known  as  high  schools, 
and  to  make  free,  by  such  taxation,  the  instruction  of  child- 


92  THE  DECISION  BY  JUSTICE  COOLEY 

ren  in  other  languages  than  the  EngHsh.  The  bill  is  con- 
sequently of  no  small  interest  to  all  the  people  of  the  State ; 
and  to  a  large  number  of  very  flourishing  schools  it  is  of 
the  very  highest  interest  as  their  prosperity  and  usefulness 
depend  upon  the  method  in  which  they  are  supported,  so 
that  a  blow  at  this  method  seems  a  blow  at  the  schools  them- 
selves. It  can  never  be  unimportant  to  know  that  taxation, 
even  for  the  most  useful  purpose,  is  warranted  by  the  strict 
letter  of  the  law,  and  whoever  doubts  its  being  so  in  any 
particular  case,  may  well  be  justified  by  his  doubts,  in  ask- 
ing a  legal  investigation,  that  if  errors  or  defects  in  the  law 
are  found  to  exist,  there  may  be  a  review  of  the  subject 
in  legislation,  and  the  whole  matter  be  settled  on  legal 
grounds,  in  such  manner  and  on  such  principles  as  the  pub- 
lic will  may  indicate,  and  the  Legislature  may  prescribe." 

After  this  full  statement  of  the  issues  involved,  the  opin- 
ion goes  on  to  consider  the  provisions  of  the  school  law 
applicable  to  the  case,  and  the  general  character  of  the  legis- 
lation upon  the  subject  of  education  and  schools  from  the 
earliest  territorial  period,  as  indicating  the  intention  and 
the  opinions  of  the  men,  who  have  been  charged  with  the 
administration  of  the  government,  in  respect  to  the  extent 
and  range  of  the  studies  which  might  be  taught  in  the 
public  schools.  In  conclusion  it  was  said :  ''If  these  facts 
do  not  demonstrate  a  general  State  policy  beginning  in  1817 
and  continuing  until  after  the  adoption  of  our  present  con- 
stitution, in  the  direction  of  free  schools,  in  which  educa- 
tion, and,  at  their  option,  the  elements  of  classical  education, 
might  be  brought  within  the  reach  of  all  the  children  in 
the  State,  then  it  seems  to  us  nothing  can  demonstrate  it. 
Neither  in  our  State  policy,  in  our  constitution,  or  in  our 


PRESENT  POSITION  OF  HIGH   SCHOOLS  93 

laws,  do  we  find  the  primary  school  districts  restricted  in 
the  branches  of  Knowledge  which  their  officers  may  cause 
to  be  taught,  or  the  grade  of  instruction  that  may  be  given, 
if  their  voters  consent,  in  regular  form,  to  bear  the  expense 
and  raise  the  taxes  for  the  purpose." 

The  decision  of  the  circuit  judge  was  sustained,  and  the 
vexed  questions  were  finally  settled.  It  was  determined  that 
henceforth  a  high  school,  established  by  the  votes  of  the 
people  of  a  district  in  due  form,  had  a  legal  and  rightful 
existence,  and  might  be  supported  by  public  funds  and  by 
direct  taxation. 

.^'  It  is  germane  to  add  that  no  law  of  the  State  requires  any 
district  to  organize  and  support  a  high  school.  Such  schools 
are  obviously  necessary  to  the  completeness,  unity,  and  effi- 
ciency of  our  educational  system;  but  they  are  dependent 
for  their  organization  and  continued  existence  upon  the 
good-will  and  voluntary  action  of  the  people  in  the  districts 
where  they  are  located.  Thus  far  this  foundation  has  prov- 
ed sufficient  for  their  support ;  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  imag- 
ine an  unexpected  change  in  popular  sentiment,  or  a  sudden 
revulsion  in  feeling,  which  should  sweep  them  entirely  away 
in  some  localities,  or  should  so  cripple  them  as  to  render 
them  of  little  value.  It  would  seem  the  part  of  wisdom  to 
guard  against  the  possibility  of  such  a  disaster  by  a  provis- 
ion of  law,  requiring  cities  and  towns  with  a  certain  popu- 
lation to  provide  for  the  support  of  high  schools,  allowing 
the  grade  of  the  schools  to  depend  upon  the  number  of  in- 
habitants and  the  resources  of  the  community. 

Since  the  judicial  decision,  giving  them  a  legal  position 
in  the  public  school  system,  the  growth  and  developrhent  of 
the  high  schools  have  been  as  rapid  as  the  conditions  of 


94         INCREASE  OF  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

local  communities  required.  The  increase  in  number,  by 
decades,  is  indicated  by  the  figures  following:  1857,  7; 
i860,  45;  1870,  107;  1880,  182;  1890,  278;  1900,  389.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  these  schools  are  of  several  grades, 
and  vary  considerably  in  the  extent  of  their  courses  of  in- 
structions ;  in  respect  to  apparatus,  libraries,  number  of 
teachers,  and  other  requisites  for  efficient  and  thorough 
school  work.  The  fact  is  generally  recognized  that  the 
primary  function  of  the  high  schools  is  to  supply  the  local 
demand  for  secondary  education.  In  addition  to  this  func- 
tion, the  larger  and  best  developed  and  equipped  serve  as 
the  necessary  "connecting  link"  between  the  elementary 
schools  and  the  University  and  other  institutions  of  advanc- 
ed education  in  the  State,  thus  giving  unity  and  complete- 
ness to  the  State  educational  system. 

The  semi-organic  relation  between  the  high  schools  and 
the  rural  primary  schools  has  been  described  in  a  previous 
chapter.  Their  connection  with  the  University  and  other 
institutions  of  higher  learning,  requires  a  few  words  of  ex- 
planation. 

AFFILIATION  WITH  THE  UNIVERSITY,  ETC. 

The  first  official  action  towards  an  affiliation  of  the  high 
schools  with  the  University,  was  suggested  by  acting  Presi- 
dent Frieze  in  his  report  for  1870.  He  said :  *'The  high 
schools  of  the  State,  in  general,  are  yearly  coming  into 
more  intimate  relations  to  the  University,  and  sending  in- 
creasing numbers  to  its  halls.  If  University  and  local  school 
authorities  shall  cooperate  in  elevating  and  multiplying 
their  courses  of  study,  and  in  arranging  them  as  parts  and 
grades  of  a  connected  and  progressive  system,  it  will  mani- 


AFFILIATION  WITH  THE  UNIVERSITY  95 

festly  be  but  the  work  of  time  to  bring  up  the  best  and  most 
enterprising  of  these  seminaries  to  the  position  of  gymnasi- 
ums. Many  of  them  have  already  expressed  themselves 
more  than  ready  to  carry  into  effect  all  the  improvements 
which  may  be  recommended  in  the  preparatory  courses, 
whether  in  ancient  languages,  in  modern  languages,  or  in 
scientific  studies.  As  a  means  of  strengthening,  consolidat- 
ing and  elevating  the  whole  State  system,  some  of  our  best 
educators,  both  in  the  local  schools  and  in  the  University, 
have  proposed  that  a  commission  of  examiners  from  the 
Academic  Faculty  should  visit  annually  such  schools  as 
may  desire  it,  and  give  certificates  to  those  pupils  who  may 
be  successful  in  their  examinations,  entitling  them  to  ad- 
mission, without  further  examinations  to  the  University." 
In  his  report  for  the  next  year.  President  Frieze  stated  that, 
at  the  request  of  the  school  boards  and  Superintendents, 
committees  of  the  Faculty  had  visited  and  made  examina- 
tions in  the  schools  of  Adrian,  Ann  Arbor,  Flint,  and  Jack- 
son, and  spoke  with  something  of  enthusiasm  of  the  results 
anticipated  from  such  visits. 

In  1872  President  Angell,  who  had  just  entered  upon  his 
official  duties  in  the  University,  said:  '*It  is  with  great 
pleasure  that  I  refer  to  the  first  year's  experience  in  form- 
ing a  quasi  organic  connection  between  the  University  and 
the  high  schools."  During  the  past  year,  he  stated,  fifty 
Freshmen  had  been  admitted  to  the  University  on  certifi- 
cates from  the  high  schools.  Of  these  28  came  from  the 
Ann  Arbor  school ;  8  from  Flint ;  7  from  Jackson ;  3  from 
Detroit ;  3  from  Kalamazoo ;  and  i  from  Adrian.  These 
details  are  recorded  to  show  the  modest  and  tentative  be- 
ginnings out  of  which  the  present  condition  has  grown. 


96  INCREASE  IN  AFFILIATED  SCHOOLS 

The  next  year  the  President  expressed  his  satisfaction 
with  the  results  of  the  experiment  which  had  then  been  tried 
for  two  years.  Nine  schools  had  been  placed  upon  the 
approved  list  after  careful  examination.  Forty  students 
had  been  admitted  without  examinations  the  previous  year 
from  six  schools.  His  conclusion  was  that  "we  are  certainly 
approximating  towards  a  more  substantial  unity  in  our 
public  system  of  education  than  any  other  State  in  the 
Union." 

In  1876  President  Angell,  in  his  report,  said :  "We  have, 
until  this  year,  declined  to  approve  any  school  which  was 
not  so  organized  and  equipped  as  to  be  able  to  prepare  stu- 
dents simultaneously  for  all  our  undergraduate  courses. 
But  we  now  propose  to  approve  any  good  high  school,  which 
can  show  that  it  is  thoroughly  preparing  students  for  any 
one  of  our  classes.  It  seems  better  that  a  school  should 
be  encouraged  to  train  students  well  in  one  or  two  courses 
than  by  undertaking  more  than  it  can  do  successfully,  to  fail 
in  doing  any  of  its  work  well."  This  was  an  important 
step  so  far  as  the  development  of  the  high  schools  was  con- 
cerned, as  the  stimulating  influence  of  affiliation  was  more 
widely  extended.  During  the  years  from  1872  to  1880  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  affiliated  schools  and  in  the  num- 
ber of  diploma  students  was  comparatively  slow  only  six- 
teen schools  having  been  placed  upon  the  approved  list,  and 
the  average  number  of  diploma  students  received  annually 
during  this  period  being  fifty-seven  and  a  small  fraction. 
After  1880  the  increase  was  more  rapid.  In  1890  the  ap- 
proved high  schools  numbered  51,  and  the  diploma  students 
159.  In  the  year  1900  the  number  of  schools  was  108,  and 
of  students  266. 


AFFILIATION  OF  HIGH   SCHOOLS  97 

This  relation  between  the  University  and  the  high  schools 
has  assumed  such  importance  that  the  authorities  of  the 
University  have  recently  designated  one  of  the  Professors 
officially  as  "Inspector  of  Schools." 

The  influence  of  affiliation  in  elevating  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  high  schools,  and  in  enlarging  and  extending 
the  courses  of  study,  is  considered  in  another  connection. 

The  affiliation  of  the  schools  with  the  University  was 
naturally  followed  by  the  formation  of  a  similar  union  with 
the  normal  schools,  and  with  the  colleges  of  the  State.  The 
practice  of  admitting  graduates  of  the  high  schools,  without 
examination,  to  the  normal  school  at  Ypsilanti,  began,  in 
a  tentative  way,  as  early  as  1874.  The  Hst  of  affiHated 
schools,  including  a  few  private  institutions,  in  1900,  num- 
bered 139;  and  the  number  of  students  admitted  on  diplo- 
mas was  389.  This  semi-organic  connection  between  these 
secondary  and  preparatory  schools  and  the  higher  educa- 
tional institutions  of  the  State,  has  proved  of  great  mutual 
advantage,  besides  giving  to  the  public  school  system,  as 
a  whole,  a  practical  organic  unity.  The  dream  of  "Father 
Pierce"  has  come  to  be  a  substantial  reality,  and  Michigan 
has  a  system  of  free  public  secondary  education  amply  suffi- 
cient to  supply  all  reasonable  demands. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  COURSES  OF  STUDIES. 

The  extent  and  character  of  the  studies  and  instructions 
in  the  public  schools,  when  the  State  school  system  was 
organized  have  already  been  referred  to ;  and  incidentally 
allusion  has  been  made  to  the  introduction  of  new  studies, 
and  of  more  advanced  branches  of  study,  made  possible  by 
the  establishment  of  graded  schools.  The  development  of 
regular  courses  of  study  and  the  expansion  of  the  sphere  of 
instruction  demand  a  little  further  consideration. 

The  first  extended  discussion  of  ''a  course  of  instruction" 
for  graded  schools,  in  an  official  document  from  our  State 
department,  is  found  in  Superintendent  Gregory's  report 
for  1861.  After  stating  certain  fundamental  principles 
which  should  guide  in  the  selection  and  arrangement  of 
studies,  he  went  on  to  apply  these  in  a  suggested  course  for 
the  four  departments  into  which  most  of  the  graded  schools 
were  divided  at  the  time. 

The  principles  enunciated  were,  in  substance,  those  now 
generally  accepted :  Adaptation  to  the  pupil's  mental  activ- 
ities ;  orderly  progression ;  healthful  influence  upon  charac- 
ter ;  and  practical  usefulness. 

The  course  for  the  primary  grades  was  given  in  detail, 
and  included,  in  addition  to  the  usual  studies,  systematic 
lessons  on  morals,  object  lessons,  drawing,  singing,  and 
physical  exercises  or  training.  The  "object  lessons"  occu- 
pied, to  a  considerable  extent,  the  province  of  the  more 

98 


MR.  GREGORY'S  COURSES  OF  STUDY  99 

modern  "nature  study,"  and  "physical  training"  looked 
toward  the  present  "manual  training."  The  moral  instruc- 
tion would  now  be  dignified  by  the  name  of  "character  build- 
ing" or  ethical  teaching.  The  studies  named  for  the  high 
school  were  algebra,  geometry,  natural  philosophy,  botany, 
geology,  chemistry,  moral  and  mental  philosophy,  and  an- 
cient and  modern  languages.  He  advised  that  students 
preparing  for  college  should  be  allowed  to  begin  Latin  in 
the  grammar  department,  thus  anticipating  one  of  the  more 
recent  improvements. 

In  his  report  for  the  next  year,  Mr.  Gregory  gave  consid- 
erable space  to  the  primary  or  common  schools,  the  "rural" 
schools  as  they  are  now  generally  called.  He  said :  "I  do 
not  remember  to  have  seen  any  regular  course  of  studies 
proposed  for  the  common  schools.  Nor  am  I  certain  that 
any  such  regular  course  will  be  generally  received  as  feas- 
ible or  desirable.  But  it  must  be  evident  to  all  reflecting 
minds,  that  all  true  education  must  proceed  by  some  regular 
steps,  and  in  some  natural  and  rational  order.  It  can  not, 
therefore,  be  either  a  useless  or  unimportant  service  to 
offer  some  discussion  of  the  real  and  relative  usefulness  of 
studies,  and  suggest  some  hints  for  the  arrangement  of  these 
studies  in  a  proper  and  natural  course  of  study." 

So  far  as  the  district  schools  are  concerned  this  discus- 
sion belongs  properly  in  another  chapter;  but  as  it  is  of  a 
general  character,  it  may  appropriately  enough  find  place 
in  this  connection.  He  made  the  course  embrace;  (i)  lan- 
guage, comprehending  talking,  reading,  orthography,  com- 
position and  grammar;  (2)  thinking,  exercises  and  instruc- 
tion of  various  kinds  designed  to  call  into  exercise  all  the 
mental  powers;    (3)    common  things,  natural  objects  and 


lOO      AvSSOCIATION  OF  CITY  SUPERINTENDENTS 

everyday  facts  which  everybody  should  know;  (4)  arith- 
metic, mental  and  written;  (5)  natural  philosophy,  (now 
called  physics);  (6)  physiology;  (7)  geography;  (8)  his- 
tory; (9)  vocal  music;  (10)  writing  and  drawing,  to  give 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  hand  with  the  pen  and  pencil ;  (11) 
morals,  ''embracing  the  culture  of  the  conscience,  the  affec- 
tions, moral  sentiments  and  principles,  and  good  behavior." 

In  concluding  he  said :  "Whatever  may  be  thought  of 
the  foregoing  course,  it  is  beyond  dispute  that  the  highest 
success  of  our  schools  imperatively  demands  the  adoption 
of  some  settled  plan  of  instruction." 

The  school  boards  of  graded  districts  had  already  ample 
authority  to  prescribe  courses  of  studies  for  their  schools, 
but  such  courses  were  usually  arranged  hastily  and  accord- 
ing to  the  judgment  or  lack  of  judgment  of  the  boards  and 
teachers  of  each  school.  If  the  courses  in  different  schools 
were  alike,  the  similarity  was  the  result  of  accident  rather 
than  of  design.  The  evils  incident  to  this  state  of  affairs, 
led  the  superintendents  and  teachers  of  the  best  organized 
schools  to  seek  to  secure  some  approximation  to  agreement 
in  their  courses.  The  subject  was  agitated  occasionally  in 
the  State  Teachers'  Association,  but  nothing  definite  was 
accomplished  until  after  the  organization  of  the  "Associa- 
tion of  City  Superintendents."  This  body  held  a  prelimi- 
nary meeting  in  December  of  1866,  and  completed  its  or- 
ganization in  July,  1868.  Action  was  immediately  taken, 
requesting  the  board  of  directors  of  the  society  to  furnish, 
for  the  next  meeting,  a  report  or  paper  upon  "A  course  of 
study  for  graded  schools."  It  was  found  no  easy  task  to 
formulate  a  course  acceptable  to  all  parties,  owing,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  to  the  different*  conditions  surrounding 


COURSE  OF   STUDIES   ARRANGED  loi 

different  schools;  but  a  course  was  finally  agreed  upon, 
which  may  be  found  in  the  State  report  for  1876,  accom- 
panied by  an  earnest  recommendation  of  the  State  Super- 
intendent that  it  be  accepted  in  all  the  schools. 

The  course  was  arranged  on  the  supposition  that  the 
graded  schools  should  be  divided  into  three  departments, 
each  department  covering  a  period  of  four  years.  Very 
few  innovations  were  introduced.  Among  these  few  was 
a  provision  for  an  increase  of  oral  instruction  in  language 
and  geography  in  the  primary  grades.  United  States  his- 
tory found  its  only  place  in  the  eighth  grade.  Something 
more  of  Science  was  provided  for  in  the  high  school,  and  a 
year  of  general  history  was  introduced.  Two  years  of  either 
French  or  German  were  allowed,  but  no  Latin  or  Greek  was 
put  into  this  general  typical  course,  although  several  of  the 
larger  high  schools  had,  at  that  time,  special  classical 
courses  fitting  students  for  the  University.  With  the  exist- 
ing conditions,  it  was  not  deemed  expedient  to  urge  the 
general  introduction  of  the  ancient  languages.  The  adop- 
tion of  this  course  was  an  important  movement  in  the  right 
direction.  It  aimed  to  secure  an  approach  to  uniformity  of 
studies  in  the  high  schools  of  the  State  in  place  of  the  con- 
fusing variety  hitherto  prevailing.  These  efforts  towards 
uniformity  were  greatly  aided  by  the  action  of  the  authori- 
ties of  the  University  in  preparing  the  way  for  affiliation 
with  that  institution.  The  general  trend  of  public  senti- 
ment in  respect  to  the  introduction  or  exclusion  of  partic- 
ular studies  was  thus  expressed,  in  the  report  of  one  of  the 
city  superintendents  for  the  same  year:  "As  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  find  a  place  for  every  branch  of  learning  in  the  public 
schools,  some  selection  must  necessarily  be  made;  and  it 


I02  STUDENTS  IN  THE  LANGUAGES 

is  plain  that  the  studies  to  be  retained  are  those  which  bear 
most  directly  on  the  practical  affairs  of  life.  The  greater 
part  of  our  pupils  must  earn  a  livelihood  by  manual  labor, 
and  school  instruction  ought  both  to  foster  the  industrial 
spirit,  and  at  the  same  time  supply  that  kind  of  knowledge 
which  can  be  most  readily  turned  to  practical  account." 

For  purpose  of  comparison,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  note 
the  number  of  students,  in  a  few  of  the  high  schools,  pursu- 
ing the  ancient  and  modern  languages  twenty-five  years 
ago.  Ann  Arbor,  Latin  159,  Greek  65,  French  73,  German 
26 ;  Battle  Creek,  Latin  33,  Greek  6,  French  4,  German  22 ; 
Cold  water,  Latin  58,  Greek  18,  French  34,  German  12 ; 
Grand  Rapids,  Latin  119,  Greek  32.  French  and  German 
were  taught  but  the  the  number  studying  these  languages 
was  not  reported.  The  other  schools,  in  which  these  lan- 
guages were  studied,  probably  had  about  the  same  relative 
numbers.  Of  the  79  graduates  from  the  State  Normal 
school  in  1876,  13  had  taken  Latin,  9  Greek,  and  6  both 
French  and  German. 

In  the  attempts  to  select  and  arrange  studies  for  the 
graded  schools,  and  especially  for  the  high  school  depart- 
ments, two  practical  difficulties  presented  themselves.  The 
first  was  the  difficulty  of  providing  courses  equally  well 
adapted  both  to  the  larger  and  the  smaller  schools,  that  is 
to  schools  in  the  cities  with  large  numbers  of  pupils  and 
abundant  resources,  and  to  schools  in  villages  with  compar- 
atively small  numbers  of  pupils  and  limited  resources.  The 
other  difficulty  was  to  select  courses  equally  adapted  to 
students  who  were  not  going  beyond  the  high  school,  and 
to  those  who  were  preparing  for  the  University  or  the  Col- 
lege.    It  was  said,  in  one  of  the  State  reports :     "For  the 


STUDIES  FOR  SMALLER  SCHOOLS  103 

smaller  graded  schools  there  is  needed  a  course  of  study 
adapted  to  their  peculiar  field  of  work,  and  a  standard  of 
attainment  which  shall  be  within  reach  of  all  schools  of  this 
class.  We  must,  first  of  all,  recognize  the  fact  that  they  can 
not,  in  many  things,  take  their  shape  and  pattern  from  the 
schools  of  the  larger  cities.  Even  if  their  field  of  work 
[were  in  other  respects  the  same,  it  is  evident  that  districts 
'  with  an  enumeration  of  500  children  and  under,  can  not 
maintain  the  same  course  of  study  and  variety  of  grades  of 
school  work  as  are  possible  in  larger  towns.  Yet  the  alter- 
native in  nearly  all  our  smaller  village  "schools  seems  to 
be  'full  twelve  years'  course  or  nothing,'  and  the  result  in 
nearly  every  case  is  nothing."  T.he  general  opinion  of 
those  most  familiar  with  the  actual  conditions  in  schools 
of  this  class,  was  that  a  ten-years'  course,  with  the  studies 
carefully  selected,  would  be  much  better  for  these  schools 
than  a  course  of  twelve  years,  arranged  with  reference  to 
the  possibilities  of  the  larger  schools.  It  was  thought  by 
some  that  the  course  of  the  first  ten  years  of  the  twelve 
years'  course  would  meet  the  wants  of  the  smaller  schools. 
But  a  little  reflection  and  examination  showed  that 
this  would  not  be  true.  Some  of  the  studies  of  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  years  were  desirable  in  the  shorter 
course.  A  distinct  course  of  studies,  selected  from  the 
longer  course,  was  necessary  for  schools  of  this  class. 

The  second  difficulty  was  that  of  preparing  courses  of 
studies  equally  adapted  to  the  needs  of  students  preparing 
for  the  University,  or  other  higher  institutions,  and  to  the 
needs  of  those  whose  education  ended  with  the  secondary 
school.  The  report  of  a  committee,  whose  authority  is 
entitled  to  the  most  respectful  consideration,  affirnM#,'fR|Ll'  *  2^^ 


I04         NOT  ONE  COURSE  FOR  ALL  STUDENTS 

no  such  difficulty  existed;  that  "every  subject  which  is 
taught  at  all  in  a  secondary  school  should  be  taught  in  the 
same  way  and  to  the  same  extent  to  every  pupil  so  long  as 
he  pursues  it,  no  matter  what  the  probable  destination  of 
the  pupil  may  be,  or  at  what  point  his  education  is  to 
cease."  This  deliverance  has  not  been  accepted  generally, 
and  will  not  be  by  those  acquainted  with  the  conditions 
and  needs  of  that  large  class  of  pupils  who  of  necessity  leave 
school  even  before  the  completion  of  the  first  half  of  a  sec- 
ondary course  of  studies.  Regard  must  be  had  for  studies 
and  instruction  practically  useful,  and  for  some  of  those 
branches  which  are  called  ''information"  studies.  In  1894, 
in  imitation  of  a  larger  organization,  the  State  Teachers' 
Association  appointed  "a  committee  of  ten"  to  arrange  **a 
model  course  of  study"  for  graded  schools  and  to  report 
this  course  at  the  next  annual  meeting.  This  committee 
acted  in  connection  with  similar  committees  of  the  ''City 
Superintendents'  Association"  and  of  the  "Schoolmasters' 
Club."  The  joint  committee  subdivided  itself  into  three 
sections,  called  the  high  school,  the  grammar  school,  and  the 
primary  school  section.  The  result  of  the  first  year's  work 
was  a  partial  report,  containing  two  detailed  primary  school 
courses,  the  one,  as  was  stated,  "typifying  the  New  Edu- 
cation in  radical  form,  the  other  representing  the  Old  Edu- 
cation in  its  latest  and  best  estate."  These  courses  elicited 
an  extended  discussion,  and  made  evident  the  existence  of 
irreconcilable  diflferences  of  opinion.  No  formal  action  was 
taken  upon  them. 

Suggested  courses  in  language,  in  mathematics,  and  in 
United  States  history,  for  the  grammar  grades,  were  made, 
and   discussed   to   some   extent.     A   report   from   the   high 


DISCUSSIONS  UPON  COURSES  105 

school  section  showed  the  whole  amount  of  work  recom- 
mended for  four  years'  study,  but  not  distributed  into  years 
and  terms,  and  also  a  table  showing 'the  work  arranged  by 
years  and  terms  into  four  courses  named,  Classical,  Latin- 
scientific,  Scientific,  and  English.  The  limited,  debate  upon 
the  report  indicated  that  no  consensus  of  opinion  had  been 
reached  even  by  the  committee.  Finally  the  whole  matter 
was  recommitted  to  the  original  committee,  with  instruc- 
tions to  complete  their  report  and  send  it,  in  printed  form, 
to  members  of  the  association  some  weeks  before  the  next 
annual  meeting,  so  that  it  might  be  carefully  studied,  and 
intelligently  discussed  at  that  time. 

The  committee  made  no  report  at  the  meeting  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  but  a  discussion,  of  considerable  length,  took 
place  upon  the  subjects  of  ''nature  study"  in  all  grades 
below  the  high  school ;  of  introducing  geometry  and  algebra 
into  elementary  courses ;  and  of  giving  place  to  United 
States  history  in  every  course  of  the  high  school  and  in 
every  grade  below  the  high  school.  No  agreement  was 
reached  as  to  a  uniform  course  of  studies  for  graded  and 
high  schools.  At  the  close  of  this  protracted  effort  to 
formulate  a  course,  or  courses,  of  studies  for  general  use, 
the  matter  remained  essentially  as  at  the  beginning  of  the 
work.  The  courses  recommended  by  the  committees  of  the 
National  Educational  Association  have  had  large  influence 
upon  the  courses  adopted  in  the  Michigan  schools ;  and  the 
suggestions  and  recommendations  of  the  authorities  of  the 
University  have  had  still  wider  influences  in  certain  direc- 
tions. The  State  Normal  College  has  helped  to  introduce 
modifications  and  improvements  into  the  courses  of  many 
of  the  smaller  high  schools.     There  is  a  general  uniformity 


lo6  PROVISION  FOR  KINDERGARTENS 

in  the  studies  and  instruction  of  the  larger  schools,  and  a 
fair  degree  of  uniformity  in  the  work  of  the  smaller  ones, 
though  there  is  still  considerable  diversity  arising  partly 
from  local  conditions  and  partly  from  the  idiosyncrasies 
of  school  boards  and  teachers.  Experience  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  a  course  of  studies,  the  same  in  every  detail,  is 
not  desirable  in  all  the  graded  schools  of  a  State  in  which 
the  conditions  and  resources  of  some  neighborhoods  differ 
so  widely  from  those  of  others.  While  the  general  prin- 
ciples which  should  determine  the  selection  and  arrange- 
ment of  studies  remain  the  same  in  all  places,  the  applica- 
tion of  these  principles  is  necessarily  modified  by  circum- 
stances. 

In  1891  an  act  of  the  Legislature  authorized  school 
boards  to  provide  rooms  and  all  necessary  apparatus  and 
appliances  for  the  establishment  of  Kindergartens,  into 
which  children  between  the  ages  of  four  and  seven  should 
be  admitted  and  instructed.  About  sixty  Kindergartens 
had  been  organized  under  this  law  up  to  the  year  1900,  and 
in  many  other  schools  some  Kindergarten  exercises  and 
instruction  had  been  provided  in  the  primary  grades.  The 
courses  of  instruction  in  these  institutions  are  generally 
understood.  Further  experience  will  doubtless  produce 
important  modifications  in  them. 

During:  the  last  few  years  courses  of  instruction,  in 
Manual  training,  varying  in  extent  and  excellence,  have 
"been  introduced  into  several  of  the  larger  graded  schools 
of  the  State.  The  State  report  for  1900  devoted  forty 
pages  to  the  discussion  of  various  aspects  of  this  subject, 
and  presented  the  arguments  in  favor  of  its  general  intro- 
duction. 


COURSES   IN   MANUAL  TRAINING  107 

No  uniform  course  of  instruction  has  yet  been  adopted. 
The  most  complete  equipment  and  the  most  extended  courses 
are  found  in  the  Hackley  school  at  Muskegon.  Manual 
training  is  compulsory  in  the  schools  of  that  city  from  the 
fifth  to  the  tenth  grade  inclusive.  Eight  instructors  are 
employed  in  this  department  under  the  supervision  of  a 
competent  director.  Manual  training  courses  thus  far  have 
been  largely  experimental,  and  many  additions,  subtractions, 
modifications,  and  improvements  may  be  confidently  antici- 
pated within  the  next  decade. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
PROVISIONS  FOR  THE  SUPPORT  OF  SCHOOI.S. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  consider  only  the  provisions  for 
the  payment  of  teachers'  wages  and  for  other  necessary 
current  expenses  of  school  administration,  and  not  provis- 
ions for  erecting  buildings  and  for  furnishing  other  per- 
manent school  appliances  and  conveniences.  Funds  for  the 
payment  of  teachers  and  for  other  expenses  of  administra- 
tion are  derived  (i)  from  the  State,  (2)  from  the  township, 
and  (3)  from  the  district,  village,  or  city  in  which  the 
school  is  located. 

7.  From  the  State.  The  State  holds  in  trust  the  Pri- 
mary school  fund ;  the  interest  of  which,  technically  known 
as  the  "Primary  school  interest  fund,"  is  apportioned  and 
distributed,  at  first  annually,  later  semi-annually,  to  the  var- 
ious local  school  authorities,  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of 
children  of  school  ages  in  the  township,  district,  village,  or 
city.  The  larger  part  of  this  Primary  school  fund  has 
been  derived  from  the  sale  of  the  sixteenth  section  of  land 
in  each  township,  this  section  having  been  reserved  for 
the  support  of  common  schools  by  Congress  in  the  act  pro- 
viding for  the  organization  of  the  Territory  of  Michigan, 
and  in  the  subsequent  act  admitting  the  State  into  the 
Union.  During  the  territorial  period  these  sections  were 
generally  taken  in  charge  by  the  township  authorities ;  the 
lands  were  not  sold,  but  leased  for  short  periods,  and  the 
proceeds  applied  to  the. support  of  schools  in  the  township. 

108 


PRIMARY  SCHOOL  FUNDS 


109 


Experience  proved  this  plan  of  management  to  be  unsatis- 
factory, and  the  act  for  the  admission  of  the  State  very  for- 
tunately committed  all  lands  reserved  for  educational  pur- 
poses, to  the  care  and  control  of  the  State  as  trustee.  Un- 
til the  establishment  of  the  Land  office  in  1843,  these  lands 
were  in  immediate  charge  of  the  department  of  pubhc 
instruction.  After  various  unfortunate  experiments  in 
loaning  and  investing  funds,  the  policy  was  finally  adopted 
of  retaining  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  school  lands,  in 
the  treasury  of  the  State,  to  be  used  as  the  Legislature 
might  from  time  to  time  direct,  the  State  itself  being  made 
debtor  for  the  amount  to  the  "Primary  school  fund."  Time 
has  proved  this  to  be  a  wise  and  satisfactory  arrangement. 
This  part  of  the  fund  is  known  as  the  "Seven  per  cent 
fund."     Its  growth  will  be  noted  a  little  further  on. 

The  other  and  smaller  portion  of  this  fund  has  been  de- 
rived from  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  so-called  "Swamp 
Lands."  In  1850  Congress  donated  these  lands  to  the 
State,  the  amount  being  between  five  and  six  million  acres. 
In  the  year  1858,  the  Legislature  enacted  that:  Fifty  per 
cent  of  all  moneys  heretofore  received  and  all  moneys  here- 
after received  from  the  sale  of  these  lands,  after  deducting 
necessary  expenses  of  sales,  should  be  made  a  primary 
school  fund,  to  bear  interest  at  the  rate  of  five  per  centum 
per  annum.  In  1887  the  law  was  amended  so  that  all  the 
net  proceeds  from  these  lands  go  into  this  fund.  Moneys 
coming  from  this  source  were  known  as  the  "five  per  cent 
fund." 

The  following  table  shows  the  increase  of  the  Primary 


no         INCREASE  OF  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  FUNDS 
school  fund  by  decades,  and  its  amount  in  1900. 


YEARS 

TOTAL     FUND 

SEVEN  %  FUND 

FIVE  %  FUND 

1842 
185I 
i860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 

$    359,809.41 
$    811,766.36 
$1,684,394.38 
$2,700,834.63 
$3,340,949.44 
$4,563,436.12 
$5,054,696.03 

$     359-809.41 
$    811,766.36 
$1,684,394.38 
$2,486,284.10 
$2,979,230.11 
$3,754,226.66 
$4,186,192.57 

Amount  first  reported. 
$109,715.42    (1863) 
$214,550.53 
$361,719.33 
$809,209.46 
$868,503.46 

The  constitution  provides  that  ''All  lands,  the  titles  to 
which  shall  fail  from  a  defect  of  heirs,  shall  escheat  to  the 
State ;  and  the  interest  on  the  clear  proceeds  from  the  sales 
thereof,  shall  be  appropriated  exclusively  to  the  support  of 
primary  schools."  The  increase  of  the  school  fund  from 
this  source  has  hardly  been  appreciable. 

The  following  table  shows  the  increase,  by  periods  of 
five  years,  in  the  amount  of  money  apportioned  to  the  school 
districts  from  the  Primary  school  interest  fund,  and  the 
sum  per  scholar  as  far  as  this  can  be  ascertained.  It  will 
be  observed  that  a  very  large  increase  in  the  amount  dis- 
tributed took  place  between  the  years  1880  and  1890.  This 
resulted  from  the  provision  of  the  constitution  requiring 
that  "All  specific  State  taxes,  except  those  received  from 
the  mining  companies  of  the  upper  peninsula,  should  be 
applied  in  paying  the  interest  upon  the  primary  school.  Uni- 
versity, and  other  educational  funds,  and  the  interest  and 
principal  of  the  State  debt,  in  the  order  herein  recited,  until 
the  extinguishment  of  the  State  debt,  other  than  the  amounts 
due  to  educational  funds,  when  such  specific  taxes  shall  be 
added  to  and  constitute  a  part  of  the  primary  school  interest 


FUNDS  FROM  SPECIFIC  TAXES 


III 


fund."  The  first  addition  to  the  interest  fund  from  this 
source  was  made  in  1881,  and  the  apportionment  per  scholar 
was  thereby  raised  from  47  cents  in  1880  to  $1.06  in  the 
next  year.  The  amount  of  surplus  specific  taxes  transferred 
during  several  years,  to  this  fund  is  indicated  by  the  fol- 
fowing  figures. 


YEARS 

AMOUNT 

! 

1         YEARS 

i 

AMOUNT 

1881 
T882 
1885 

$305,395-27 
$314,044-98 
$507,892-36 

1890 
1899 
1900 

$489^393-20 
$648,857-11 
$918,898.62 

Table  showing  increase  in  apportionment  from  Primary 
school  interest  fund,  and  amount  per  scholar  as  far  as  ascer- 
tained. 


YEARS 

APPORTION  m'T 

PER    SCHOIv. 

1. 

YEARS 

APPORTION  m'T 

PER     SCHOE. 

1839 

$       20,248.96 

1865 

$     134,634-42 

$.48 

1840 

$        19,217.68 

1870 

s  179,483-16 

$   -48 

184I 

$        10,789.36 

1875 

S     217,499.06 

$   .50 

1845 

$       22,237.34 

$   .28 

1880 

$     226,954.60 

$.47 

1850 

$       42,794-44 

$  -34 

1881 

$     533,340.49 

$1.06 

1855 

$       83,242.08 

$  -48 

1890 

$    848,726.76 

$1-33 

i860 

$     108,823.62 

$-46 

1900 

$1,531,857-45 

$2.15 

Money  from  this  fund  can  be  used  only  for  the  payment 
of  teachers'  wages. 

2.  Prom  the  7'ozvnship.  The  first  school  law  required 
the  county  commissioners  (now  supervisors)  to  assess  each 
year  a  tax  upon  the  various  townships  equal  to  the  amount 
apportioned  to  them  from  the  State  primary  school  interest 
fund.     The  proceeds  of  this  tax  were  to  be  distributed  to 


112 


PROCEEDS  OF  THE  MILL  TAX 


the  several  districts  upon  the  same  basis  as  the  primary 
school  fund.  In  1841  the  law  was  changed  and  the  town- 
ships were  authorized  to  raise  annually  by  tax  for  school 
purposes  a  sum  not  exceeding  one  dollar  for  each  child  of 
school  age.  Two  years  later  the  law  was  again  amended, 
and  the  supervisors  were  required  withoi^t  a  vote  of  the 
townships,  to  levy  a  tax,  for  the  support  of  schools,  of  $25 
for  the  year  1843  5  ^^  one  half  mill  upon  every  dollar  of  val- 
uation for  1844,  ^^^  thereafter  annually  of  one  mill  upon 
the  dollar.  In  185 1  and  1852  the  tax  was  made  two  mills; 
from  1853  to  1858,  again  one  mill;  from  1859  ^^  1878  two 
mills,  and  in  1879  it  was  again  reduced  to  one  mill,  at  which 
it  has  since  remained.  For  the  sake  of  brevity  this  tax, 
whether  of  one  or  two  mills,  is  known  as  the  "mill  tax." 
Although  not  levied  by  vote  of  the  townships,  it  is  properly 
regarded  as  a  township  tax  since  it  is  assessed,  collected, 
and  apportioned  by  township  officers.  Unfortunately  for 
the  interest  of  the  schools  as  a  whole,  each  district  receives, 
in  the  distribution  of  the  proceeds  of  this  tax,  just  the 
amount  collected  in  the  district.  The  increase  in  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  mill  tax  is  indicated  by  the  following  table. 


YEARS 

1 
AMOUNT 

YEARS 

AMOUNT 

1842 

1845 
1850 
i860 

First  Report 
$     1,120.14 
$    5,521.67 
$  17,957-30 
$262,130.80 

1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 

$405,111.64 

$379,757-93 
$658,305.11 
$649,012.05 

The  proceeds  of  the  mill  tax  are  to  be  used  for  the  pay- 
ment of  teachers'  wages  and  other  necessary  current  ex- 
penses of  the  school ;  but  if  a  surplus  remains,  after  a  school 


DISTRICT,  VILLAGE  OR  CITY  TAXES  113 

has  been  maintained  at  least  eight  months  in  the  school 
year,  it  may  be  appropriated  ''for  the  purpose  of  purchasing 
and  enlarging  school  sites,  or  for  building  or  repairing 
school-houses  or  for  purchasing  books  for  library,  globes, 
maps  and  other  school  apparatus,  or  for  any  incidental  ex- 
penses of  the  school."  The  township  or  city  authorities 
are  required  to  apportion  to  the  several  districts  in  the  town- 
ship or  city,  in  April  of  each  year,  any  surplus  remaining 
of  the  "dog  tax."  This  money  may  be  used  for  general 
school  purposes. 

In  township  districts,  since  the  district  and  the  township 
are  the  same,  all  taxes  levied  for  school  purposes  may  prop- 
erly be  regarded  as  township  taxes.  The  amount  of  such 
taxes  is  determined  by  the  qualified  electors  at  each  annual 
meeting.  In  case  the  elctors  neglect  or  refuse  to  do  this, 
it  is  to  be  done  by  the  township  board  of  education. 

J.  From  the  district,  village,  or  city.  For  a  few  years 
after  the  organization  of  the  school  system,  district  taxes 
were  assessed  and  collected  by  the  district  officers,  one  of 
whom,  at  that  time,  was  appropriately  named  assessor. 
These  duties  were  soon  transferred  to  the  township  officers, 
but  the  name  assessor  persisted  for  half  a  century.  By  the 
provisions  of  the  original  school  law,  a  district  could  vote  a 
tax  not  exceeding  ninety  dollars  annually  for  teachers' 
wages  and  other  current  expenses.  This  provision  was 
stricken  out  in  1840,  and  for  a  short  period  no  direct  tax 
could  be  voted  for  the  support  of  teachers.  For  several 
years  changes  were  made  in  the  school  law  at  nearly  every 
session  of  the  Legislature,  especially  in  those  sections  re- 
lating to  taxation.  The  revision  of  1846  authorized  a  dis- 
trict to  levy  a  tax,  not  exceeding  one  dollar  for  ever^  scholar 


114  MONEY  FOR  TEACHERvS'  WAGES 

in  the  district,  for  the  support  of  the  school.  This  provis- 
ion remained  essentially  unchanged,  so  far  as  the  common 
rural  schools  were  concerned,  until  the  passage  of  the  act 
in  1869,  abolishing  the  rate  bill  and  making  the  public 
schools  free.  Graded  districts,  villages,  and  cities  could 
raise  a  larger  amount,  not  being  subject  to  this  limitation. 
As  the  abolition  of  the  rate  bill  introduced  new  conditions, 
it  will  be  of  interest  to  make  note  of  a  few  items  at  this 
point. 

In  the  year  1855  there  were  paid  for  teachers'  wages 
$295,231.20,  of  this  amount  $83,242.08  came  from  the  pri- 
mary school  interest  fund;  $83,961.30  from  the  mill  tax; 
$83,932.84  from  rate  bills ;  and  only  $44,094.98  from  volun- 
tary district  taxes.  In  i860  teachers'  wages  reached  the 
sum  of  $467,286.50;  of  this  $108,823.62  came  from  the  prir 
mary  school  fund;  $262,130.80  from  the  mill  tax;  $67,484.- 
87  from  rate  bills ;  and  only  $28,846.63  from  district  taxes. 
In  1869,  in  July  of  which  year  the  free  school  law  took 
effect,  teachers'  wages  were  $1,177,847.86;  of  which  amount 
$165,690.51  came  from  the  school  fund;  $323,246.12  from 
the  mill  tax;  $94,752.55  from  rate  bills;  and  $571,564.11 
from  district  taxes.  The  great  increase  in  the  amount  of 
district  taxes  for  teachers'  wages,  from  i860  to  1869,  re- 
sulted from  the  large  increase  of  graded  schools,  most  of 
which  had  been  made  free  by  the  spontaneous  action  of  the 
people  of  the  graded  districts.  The  total  amount  reported 
as  raised  from  rate  bills,  in  the  years  from  1846  to  1867, 
was  $1,658,414.02.  The  amount  raised  in  this  way  from 
1836  to  1846,  cannot  be  determined  from  the  school  reports. 
The  prolonged  struggle  to  secure  free  schools  is  described 
in  another  chapter. 


FUNDS  FROM  DISTRICT  TAXES 


115 


District  taxation  for  the  support  of  schools,  not  for  build- 
ings and  other  permanent  improvements  under  the  free 
school  laws  of  1869,  was  governed  by  the  following  provis- 
ion :  ''It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  district  board  to  estimate 
the  amount  necessary  to  be  raised,  for  the  entire  support  of 
the  school,  including  fuel  and  other  incidental  expenses,  and 
for  deficiencies  for  previous  year,  and  *  *  *  *  make  a 
written  report  of  the  amount  so  determined,  to  the  super- 
visor of  the  township,  *  *  *  *.  g^^d  the  same  shall  be 
levied  upon  the  taxable  property  of  the  district,  collected 
and  returned  in  the  same  manner  as  township  taxes."  It 
will  be  noticed  that  this  tax  is  not  voted  by  the  electors  of 
the  district.  The  voters,  at  the  annual  meeting,  may  deter- 
mine the  length  of  time  the  school  shall  be  taught,  subject 
to  the  minimum  limit  imposed  by  the  law,  and  this  having 
been  done,  the  district  board  must  see  that  the  necessary 
means  are  provided.  Subsequent  amendments  have  limited 
the  power  of  the  board  in  one  particular.  In  districts  hav- 
ing less  than  thirty  scholars,  the  amount  fixed  upon  by  the 
board  must  not,  including  the  other  school  funds,  exceed 
the  sum  of  fifty  dollars  a  month  for  the  period  during  which 
the  school  is  to  be  held.  It  will  be  observed  that  a  provision 
for  fuel  is  especially  mentioned.  This  is  explained  by  the 
fact  that  previous  to  this  time  fuel,  like  tuition,  had  been 
furnished  by  a  rate  bill  or  by  vohmtary  contribution.  It 
should  also  be  added,  in  justice  to  our  predecessors,  that 
the  district  board  could  remit  the  rate  bills  for  tuition  and 
fuel  to  persons  in  straitened  circumstances,  and  raise  the 
amount  so  remitted  by  a  tax  on  the  district. 

The  increase  in  the  resources  of  the  districts,  not  includ- 
ing loans  or  balances  for  the  preceding  year  or  other  in- 


ii6 


INCREASE  IN  RESOURCES  OF  DISTRICTS 


cidental  sources,  by  decades  since  1870  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  tuition  of  non-resident  pupils  has 
become  an  item  of  considerable  importance. 


Years 

Primary  School 
Interest  Fund 

Mill  Tax 

District  Taxes 
for  All  Objects 

Tuition  of 
Non-Reside'ts 

1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 

$    177,313.79 
$    223,525.21 

$    795,813.47 
$1,030,538.89 

$405,111.64 
$379,757.93 
.$658,305.11 
$649,012.05 

$1,742,578.87 
$2,074,073-37 
$3,451,729-93 
$4,763,966.19 

$26,064.14 
$34,925.68 
$57,815.57 
$87,277.89 

The  total  revenue  of  the  districts,  from  all  sources,  in 
1870  was  $3,154,221.28;  in  1880,  $3,789,197.97;  in  1890, 
$6,763,125.20 ;  in  1900,  $9,069,655.80. 


CHAPTER  X. 

FREE  SCHOOLS  AND  REQUIRED  ATTENDANCE. 

From  the  beginning-  of  his  educational  work  Superintend- 
ent Pierce  advocated  free  schools,  that  is,  schools  supported 
entirely  from  the  income  of  permanent  funds  and  by  tax- 
ation in  some  form  upon  the  property  of  the  State.  And 
as  a  natural  correlative  he  favored  compulsory  attendance 
for  a  certain  portion  of  the  year.  In  both  these  positions 
he  was  a  long  distance  in  advance  of  the  general  public  senti- 
ment of  his  day.  The  idea  of  a  tuition  fee  was  inherited 
from  the  territorial  period,  and  the  rate  bill  system  was  bor- 
rowed from  New  York. 

In  his  first  report  Mr.  Pierce  said :  "Let  free  schools  be 
established  and  maintained  in  perpetuity,  and  there  can 
be  no  such  thing  as  a  permanent  aristocracy  in  our  land; 
for  the  monopoly  of  wealth  is  powerless  when  mind  is 
allowed  freely  to  come  in  contact  with  mind.  It  is  only  by 
erecting  a  barrier  between  the  rich  and  the  poor,  which  can 
be  done  only  by  allowing  the  rich  a  monopoly  of  learning 
as  well  as  wealth,  that  such  an  aristocracy  can  be  estab- 
lished. The  operation  of  the  free  school  system  has  a 
powerful  tendency  to  prevent  the  erection  of  this  barrier. 
*  *  *  *  Can  any  plan  be  devised  by  which  the  princi- 
ples of  knowledge  and  virtue  may  be  so  diffused  among 
the  great  body  of  the  people,  as  the  existence  and  perpe- 
tuity of  our  institutions  require? 

117 


Ii8     RIGHT  OF  STATE  TO  COMPEL  ATTENDANCE 

The  general  impression  is,  that  it  may  be  done  effectually 
by  a  well  digested  system  of  free  schools.  There  is  no 
alternative,  this  being  the  only  process  by  which  the  whole 
population  can  be  made  acquainted  with  their  rights  and 
duties  as  citizens  of  our  commonwealth,"  In  speaking  of 
attendance  upon  the  schools  he  wrote:  ''It  is  proposed  as 
a  subject  worthy  the  greatest  consideration,  whether  the 
State  can  fulfil  its  high  obligation  to  itself  and  suffer  any 
to  grow  up  in  ignorance.  It  is  apprehended  to  be  the  duty 
of  the  government  to  require  of  all  persons,  having  the  care 
of  children,  their  education.  And  effectually  to  secure  the 
accomplishment  of  this  object,  they  should  be  required  to 
send  them  to  school  the  constitutional  proportion  of  the  year, 
between  the  ages  of  five  and  seventeen.  *  *  >k  *  And 
in  all  this  there  is  nothing  inconsistent  with  the  principles 
of  rational  liberty.  It  is  merely  providing  for  the  safety 
of  the  State,  for  its  health,  happiness  and  vigorous  growth. 
This  duty  stands  on  precisely  the  same  ground  as  the  law 
which  obliges  all  the  citizens  to  be  enrolled  and  occasionally 
do  military  duty.  It  is  a  wise  precautionary  measure  for 
the  public  security."  These  topics  are  further  discussed 
in  his  second  report :  and,  while  he  admits  that  primarily 
parents  are  responsible  for  the  education  of  their  children, 
he  says:  ''It  is  well  known  this  duty  is  neglected  in  innum- 
erable instances.  It  is  hence  the  right  of  the  State  so  far 
to  interpose  its  paternal  authority,  as  to  give  additional 
weight  to  this  obligation,  and  make  such  provision  as  will 
secure  the  desired  result." 

The  Legislature  was  slow  to  respond  to  any  suggestions 
or  recommendations  for  making  the  public  schools  free, 
and  providing  for  their  support  by  either  State,  Township, 


FREE  SCHOOLS  IN  DETROIT  119 

or  District  taxation.  Public  sentiment  did  not  at  that  period, 
demand  such  action.  The  first  important  step  in  the  direc- 
tion of  free  schools  was  taken  in  an  act  passed  in  1842  rela- 
tive to  public  schools  in  Detroit.  In  a  sketch  of  the  public 
schools  of  that  city,  written  in  1850,  by  D.  Bethune  Duffield, 
Esq.,  the  statement  was  made  that,  "previous  to  the  year 
1 84 1,  no  such  thing  as  a  free  school  was  known  in  the  city 
of  Detroit."  Elementary  education  was  in  a  most  deplora- 
ble condition.  There  were  scattered  about  the  city  twenty- 
nine  schools,  only  one  of  which  really  deserved  the  name  of 
school.  The  whole  number  of  pupils  in  attendance  upon 
these  schools,  such  as  they  were,  was  only  700,  in  a  city  of 
nearly  10,000  inhabitants.  The  average  cost  of  tuition  was 
$17  a  year  for  each  scholar.  This  state  of  affairs,  when 
fully  understood,  naturally  aroused  the  attention  and  excite- 
ed  the  interest  of  the  beneVolent  and  public  spirited  citizens. 
The  act  just  referred  to  was  secured  from  the  Legislature. 
This  law  consolidated  all  the  districts  of  the  city  into  one, 
and  created  ''The  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  De- 
troit." The  powers  of  taxation  for  school  purposes  were  at 
first  carefully  limited,  but  were  sufficient  to  make  the  be- 
ginning of  a  system  of  free  public  schools.  This  was  the 
first  provision,  of  an  extensive  character,  for  such  schools 
in  the  State.  A  little  later  the  establishment  of  the  graded 
and  union  system  gradually  provided  other  free  schools, 
but  their  growth  was  slow.  Reference  has  been  made  in 
another  chapter  to  the  discussions  in  the  constitution  direct- 
ing the  Legislature,  within  five  years  after  the  adoption  of 
the  constitution,  to  provide  for  a  free  school  in  every  dis- 
trict of  the  State,  for  at  least  three  months  in  each  year. 
If  the  Legislature  had  heeded  this  mandate  of  the  consti- 


I20         PUBLIC  OPINION  AS  TO  FREE  SCHOOLS 

tution,  Michigan  would  not  be  compelled  to  bear  the  dis- 
grace of  having  been  one  of  the  last  States  to  abolish  the 
"rate  bill."  But  no  power,  save  an  imperative  and  strongly 
expressed  public  sentiment  can  coerce  the  Legislative  body 
of  an  American  State :  and  public  sentiment  in  our  State 
between  the  years  1850  and  i860  was  not  unanimously  im- 
perative in  this  direction. 

The  state  of  public  opinion  generally  may  be  inferred 
from  a  debate  which  occurred  in  the  State  teachers'  asso- 
ciation in  the  year  1858.  At  its  meeting  in  that  year  a 
paper  was  read  upon  the  question :  ''Ought  our  schools  to 
be  free?"  The  reader  of  the  paper  did  not,  on  the  whole, 
favor  schools  entirely  free  except  under  certain  peculiar 
conditions.  In  the  debate  which  followsd  the  reading,  Dr. 
A.  Winchell  of  the  State  University,  expressed  grave  doubts 
of  the  wisdom  of  making  the  public  schools  generally  free, 
although  some  of  the  union  schools  might  be  made  so  with 
advantage.  He  thought  a  great  public  school  fund  an  in- 
jury rather  than  a  benefit  to  the  cause  of  education.  Men, 
he  said,  estimated  the  value  of  a  thing  by  its  direct,  obvious 
cost  to  them.  If  education  costs  nothing  it  will  be  esti- 
mated accordingly. 

Professor  Hosford  of  Olivet  College  concurred  in  the 
views  of  Dr.  Winchell.  He  also  expressed  opposition  to  a 
compulsory  school  law.  Among  other  things  he  said: 
''Cheapen  education  to  the  zero  point,  and  the  masses  will 
value  it  at  zero.  You  will  frustrate  the  design  unless  you 
compel  the  people  to  keep  their  children  in  school.  What 
would  our  people  think  to  see  a  law  passed  making  it  a 
penal  offense  to  keep  a  child  from  school?  It  would  not 
do.     We  may  have  the  compulsory  system,  but  this  sys  ■ 


SENTIMENT  AMONG  TEACHERS  121 

tern  is  totally  repugnant  to  our  institutions."  At  a  later 
period,  when  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Mr. 
Hosford  showed  that  his  views  had  undergone  a  change. 
A  considerable  number  of  the  members  of  the  association, 
however,  took  strong  ground  in  favor  of  free  schools.  •  The 
result  of  a  vote  upon  the  question  of  making  the  public 
schools  free  by  direct  taxation  would  have  been  doubtful 
at  that  time,  although  a  resolution  declaring  that  the  rate 
bill  system,  in  its  then  form,  ought  to  be  abolished  was 
adopted  unanimously.  These  excerpts  have  been  given  to 
show  the  divided  state  of  public  sentiment  even  among 
teachers  and  other  good  friends  of  education  at  that  period, 
and  to  explain  the  delay  of  the  Legislature  in  obeying  the 
constitutional  requirement.  Free  schools  were  provided  for 
when  the  demand  for  them  was  unanimous  enough  and  loud 
enough,  to  be  distinctly  heard  in  the  legislative  halls,  and 
not  till  then. 

A  decade  later  the  association,  without  an  opposing  voice, 
resolved,  *'that  school  rates  should  be  abolished,  and  the 
funds  needed  to  make  our  schools  free  to  all  should  be  raised 
by  an  impartial  tax  by  the  State."  Public  opinion  had  rip- 
ened and  crystalized  into  a  definite  form,  and  it  was  heeded 
by  the  law-making  powers.  A  legislative  act  was  passed 
which  took  effect  on  the  third  of  July,  1869,  providing  for 
primary  schools  absolutely  free  to  all  the  children  of  the 
State.  For  fourteen  years,  upon  one  plea  and  another,  the 
mandate  of  the  fundamental  law  of  the  commonwealth  had 
been  disregarded. 

In  dismissing  this  subject,  it  may  not  be  digressing  too 
far  to  present  a  few  historical  facts  regarding  the  rate  bill 
and  the  support  of  schools,  borrowed  from  one  of  the  Con- 


122  FACTS  AS  TO  THE  RATE  BILL 

necticut  school  reports  and  copied  in  part  into  our  own 
State  report  of  1868.  The  report  said :  ''The  greatest  hin- 
drance to  the  improvement  of  our  schools,  is  the  rate  bill ; 
it  is  wrong  in  principle  and  mischievous  in  practice.  It  is 
alike  the  duty  and  the  interest  of  the  State  to  furnish  sub- 
stantially equal  common  school  privileges  to  the  children  of 
all  classes.  Self -protection  is  the  right  and  duty  of  govern- 
ment. For  this  purpose  it  may  maintain  armies  and  navies. 
But  cheaper,  safer,  every  way  better  than  forts  and  fleets, 
is  universal  education."  It  is  unnecessary  today  to  quote 
or  repeat  arguments  to  prove  the  advantages  of  free  schools, 
but  it  was  otherwise  as  late  as  1863.  The  reports  showed 
that  New  York  made  her  schools  free  in  1867  5  Ohio  as 
early  as  1853 ;  Illinois  never  had  the  rate  bill ;  her  schools 
had,  from  the  first,  been  free  six  months  in  the  year ;  the 
schools  of  Indiana  had  also  been  free  from  their  origin  in 
1852.  The  schools  of  Pennsylvania  were  made  free  in 
1834.  None  of  the  New  England  States  had  a  rate  bill  in 
1868  except  Connecticut;  Rhode  Island  had  just  abolished 
it;  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  always  had  free  schools: 
the  Massachusetts  schools  had  been  free  for  nearly  two 
hundred  years.  Connecticut  and  New  Jersey  disputed  with 
Michigan  the  doubtful  honor  of  being  last  to  make  their 
schools  free.  New  Jersey  won,  however,  as  her  schools 
were  not  made  entirely  free  until  1871. 

COMPULSORY  ATTENDANCE. 

The  schools  having  been  made  free,  and  the  principle  hav- 
ing been  accepted  that  the  property  of  the  State  should  bear 
the  burden  of  educating  the  children  of  the  State,  the  ques- 
tion of  compulsory  attendance  upon  the  schools  remained 


COMPULSORY   ATTENDANCE 


123 


to  be  considered  and  settled.  Logically,  a  law  demanding 
such  attendance,  wherever  such  a  law  was  necessary,  seemed 
a  natural  and  inevitable  corollary,  and  practically  it  was,  in 
some  cases,  a  necessity,  if  the  State  was  to  make  sure  of  an 
adequate  return  for  its  expenditures.  It  was  a  matter  of 
no  little  interest  to  note,  as  debates  went  on,  the  change  in 
the  sentiment  of  the  teachers'  association  upon  the  subject 
since  the  discussion  in  1858.  A  similar  change  had  been 
going  on  among  the  people  generally,  but  the  consensus  of 
opinion  was  not  yet  very  strong  nor  very  demonstrative. 
It  was,  however,  strong  enough  to  induce  the  Legislature 
of  1 87 1  to  pass  a  law  entitled  "An  act  to  compel  children 
to  attend  school."  This  act  required  all  children  between 
the  ages  of  eight  and  fourteen,  unless  excused  by  the  school 
board  of  the  district  on  account  of  bodily  or  mental  condi- 
tion, to  be  sent  to  a  public  school  for  a  period  of  at  least 
twelve  weeks,  at  least  six  of  these  to  be  consecutive,  in 
each  year,  imless  it  was  shown  that  such  children  were 
properly  taught  at  home  or  in  private  schools.  Parents  or 
guardians  failing  to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  the  law 
were  liable  to  a  fine  of  five  to  ten  dollars  for  the  first  offense, 
and  of  ten  to  twenty  dollars  for  any  subsequent  offense. 
The  director  or  president  of  the  school  board  of  the  district 
was  required  to  see  to  the  enforcenient  of  the  law,  whenever 
complaint  was  made  to  him,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of 
twenty  to  fifty  dollars.  In  the  report  of  1872  Superintend- 
ent Hosford  wrote :  "The  moral  effect  of  this  law  was  very 
manifest.  Many  children  found  their  way  to  the  school 
room,  not  waiting  to  be  compelled  to  attend  by  force  of  law. 
The  final  result  can  only  be  determined  by  the  faithfulness 
with  which  the  law  was  executed.     Mr.  Hosford  expressed 


124         LAWS  FOR  COMPULSORY  ATTENDANCE 

the  opinion  that  the  act  for  compulsory  attendance  should 
be  supplemented  by  a  law  dealing  with  *' incorrigible  tru- 
ancy," and  quoted  from  a  recent  Massachusetts  report  in 
confirmation  of  his  views.  The  law  remained  without  es- 
sential change  until  1883.  Its  enforcement  was  generally 
very  lax,  and  in  many  districts  it  was,  ''to  all  intents  and 
purposes,"  a  dead  letter. 

A  new  law  was  enacted  in  1883  which  was  amended  in 
1885.  This  act  was  designed  to  remedy  the  defects  of  the 
earlier  law,  and  to  make  better  provision  for  its  enforcement. 
It  increased  the  time  of  required  attendance  to  four  months ; 
forbade  the  employment  of  children  under  fourteen  years 
of  age  unless  they  had  attended  school  the  required  four 
months;  made  the  violation  of  the  law  a  misdemeanor  and 
imposed  a  fine  of  five  to  ten  dollars  for  the  first  offense,  and 
not  less  than  ten  dollars  for  each  subsequent  offense. 

This  act  was  reinforced  by  two  other  laws  passed  in 
1885 ;  one  ''Regulating  the  employment  of  children,"  the 
other  for  the  "Compulsory  reformatory  education  of  Juve- 
nile disorderly  persons." 

The  first  of  these  laws  imposed  a  fine  of  fifty  dollars  for 
each  offense,  upon  any  person  or  corporation  employing  a 
child  under  fourteen  years  of  age  in  violation  of  the  provis- 
ions of  the  compulsory  education  act,  and  made  the  chief 
of  police  in  cities,  and  the  supervisors  in  townships  respon- 
sible for  the  enforcement  of  the  law.  The  second  of  these 
acts  authorized  the  establishment  of  ungraded  schools  in 
the  villages  and  cities  having  a  graded  system  of  schools, 
to  which  certain  classes  of  children  between  the  ages  of 
eight  and  sixteen,  designated  as  "Juvenile  disorderly  per- 
sons," should  be  sent  for  instruction  and  training.     Three 


LAWS  AS  TO  ATTENDANCE  125 

classes  of  such  children  were  named :  ( i )  Habitual  truants 
from  any  school ;  (2)  children  who  were,  while  attending 
any  regular  school,  incorrigibly  turbulent,  disobedient,  vic- 
ious or  immoral  in  conduct ;  ( 3 )  children  not  attending  any 
school,  habitually  frequenting  streets  and  public  places,  hav- 
ing no  lawful  business,  employment,  or  occupation,  which 
necessarily  prevented  attendance  at  school.  Provision  was 
made  for  the  appointment  of  truant  officers  whose  duty  it 
was  to  execute  the  law.  Under  this  act,  in  extreme  cases, 
juvenile  disorderly  persons  might  be  sentenced  to  the  Indus- 
trial school  for  boys  or  the  Industrial  home  for  girls. 

Another  law,  along  the  same  line,  was  enacted  in  1887, 
entitled,  *'An  act  to  prevent  crime  and  punish  truancy." 
This  statute  affected  schools  only  indirectly,  being  designed 
to  reach  habitual  truants,  loungers,  and  idlers  of  both  sexes 
who  were  beyond  the  control  of  their  parents,  and  in  danger 
of  becoming  confirmed  criminals. 

The  statutes  in  relation  to  compulsory,  education  and  the 
punishment  of  truancy  were  revised,  and  amended  in  a  few 
points,  in  1895,  and  were  further  slightly  amended  in  1897 
and  1901. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  provisions  of  the 
law  at  present. 

I.  All  children  in  the  State  between  the  a.sres  of  eight 
and  fifteen  years,  and  in  the  cities  between  the  ages  of 
seven  and  fifteen,  are  required  to  attend  school  for  a  period 
of  at  least  four  months  in  each  school  year.  In  cities,  with 
a  regular  police  force,  the  time  is  not  limited  to  four  months, 
but,  under  certain  conditions,  extends  through  the  whole 
school  year.  Children  who  have  already  acquired  the  com- 
mon  branches,   or   are   being   properly   taught   in   private 


126  PROVISIONS  OF  THE  LAWS 

schools,  or  are  physically  unable  to  attend  school,  are  ex- 
empt from  the  provisions  of  the  law.  In  cities,  children 
over  fourteen  may  be  excused  from  attendance  for  a  part 
or  for  the  whole  of  the  year  until  they  are  fifteen.  In  the 
country  districts  children  under  nine  are  exempt  from  re- 
quired attendance  if  the  school  is  not  within  two  miles  of 
their  homes. 

2.  The  school  boards  of  all  g^raded  and  township  dis- 
tricts are  required  to  appoint  truant  officers,  and  the  boards 
of  school  districts  with  a  population  of  fifty  or  more  may 
appoint  such  officers.  In  districts  where  no  truant  officers 
are  specially  appointed,  the  chairman  of  the  township  board 
of  school  inspectors  must  perform  the  duties  of  such  officers. 
In  cities  having  a  regularly  organized  police  force,  the 
police  authorities,  at  the  request  of  the  school  authorities, 
are  required  to  detail  one  or  more  members  of  the  police 
to  perform  the  duties  of  truant  officers. 

3.  Teachers  must  be  furnished  with  a  copy  of  the  school 
census,  and  must  report,  at  the  close  of  each  month  of 
school,  to  the  truant  officers  the  names  of  children  on  the 
census  list,  who  have  not  attended  school  regularly  during 
the  preceeding  month.  It  is  then  the  duty  of  the  truant 
officers  to  investigate  all  such  cases,  and  to  see  that  the 
provisions  of  the  law  are  enforced. 

4.  Parents  or  guardians  failing  to  comply  with  the  pro- 
visions of  the  law,  are  liable  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  five 
nor  more  than  fifty  dollars,  or  to  imprisonment  for  not  less 
than  two  nor  more  than  ninety  days,  or  to  both  fine 
and  imprisonment  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

While  it  can  not  be  affirmed  that  the  law  is  enforced  in 
all  the  cities  and  districts  of  the  State,  it  can  be  said  with 


PRESENT  PUBLIC    SENTIMENT  127 

confidence  that  there  is  a  growing  demand  for  its  proper 
enforcement ;  and  that  compulsory  attendance  upon  a  free 
school  is  not  regarded  by  any  considerable  number  of  our 
people,  as  inconsistent  with  the  spirit  of  our  institutions, 
or  as  an  infringement  upon  the  natural  rights  of  parents. 


CHAPTER  XL 
PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS. 

Reference  was  made  in  the  third  chapter  to  the  views 
expressed  by  Superintendent  Pierce  upon  the  importance 
of  securing  a  supply  of  competent  teachers  for  the  common 
schools.  A  little  further  reference  to  his  opinions  and  to 
those  of  his  immediate  successors  seems  desirable  to  make 
it  clear  that  the  demand  for  teachers,  especially  educated 
and  trained,  is  not  of  recent  origin.  The  belief  that  "any- 
body could  keep  school"  was  not  universal  sixty  years  ago. 
Some  of  the  suggestions  of  Mr.  Pierce  were  impracticable, 
but  they  are,  nevertheless,  worth  recalling.  Among  other 
things  he  wrote: 

'*In  the  system  which  we  as  a  State  may  adopt,  it  will  be 
important  to  make  such  provision  as  will  infallibly  secure 
a  sufficient  number  of  competent  teachers.  It  will  be  essen- 
tial to  make  teaching  the  business  of  men,  and  then  men 
will  be  found  to  do  the  business  of  teaching.  No  doubt, 
as  things  are  now,  it  will  be  thought  difficult  if  not  impos- 
sible, to  find  a  sufficient  number  of  persons  qualified  for  the 
employment,  or  who  will  venture  to  engage  in  preparing 
themselves  for  it." 

After  stating  the  fact  that  the  exceedingly  meager  com- 
pensation given  to  teachers  picsented  an  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  securing  desirable  instructors  for  the  common  schools, 
he  proceeds,  *Tt  is  hence  obvious  that  the  great  reason  why 
there  is  such  a  deficiency  in  the  number  of  qualified  teachers, 

128 


WAGES  OF  TEACHERS  129 

is  to  be  found  in  the  unwillingness  on  the  part  of  the  inhab- 
itants to  pay  such  wages  as  to  secure  the  services  of  indi- 
viduals of  the  required  talents  and  qualifications.  If  so,  it 
is  confidently  believed  to  be  within  the  power  of  the  State 
to  obviate  the  difficulty.  Let  teachers  be  paid  as  they  ought 
to  be,  let  them  receive  such  compensation  as  will  remuner- 
ate them  for  their  services,  and  sufficient  numbers  will  be 
found  to  fit  themselves  for  the  business  of  teaching.  And 
to  secure  their  employment  when  fitted  to  teach,  let  the  pro- 
visions of  the  law  be  such  that  no  township  shall  be  entitled 
to  any  portion  of  the  income  of  the  public  fund,  which  does 
not  employ  thoroughly  educated  teachers.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  no  man  ought  ever  to  be  considered  as  qualified 
to  teach  a  school  whose  time  is  not  worth  at  least  thirty 
dollars  per  month ;  and  that  no  female  ought  to  be  engaged 
in  this  work  whose  services  are  not  worth  fifteen  dollars 
per  month.  This  suggestion  is  certainly  worthy  of  consid- 
eration ;  and  it  is  also  worthy  of  consideration  whether  it 
will  not  be  expedient  to  fix  on  a  minimum  price  below  which 
no  teacher  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  aid  from  the  avails 
of  the  public  fund,  and  to  provide  prospectively  that  every 
teacher  of  the  public  schools  shall  have  been  through  a  reg- 
ular course  of  training,  and  shall  have  received  from  the 
academic  board  a  diploma,  setting  forth  his  qualifications 
as  a  teacher." 

For  the  preparation  of  teachers  he  proposed  that  a  nor- 
mal department  should  form  an  essential  part  of  the  branches 
of  the  University,  which  were  to  be  established  in  such 
counties  as  complied  with  certain  provisions  of  law.  This 
department  was  to  be  open  without  charge  to  all  who  wished 
to  prepare  for  teaching  on  condition  that  they  should  give 


I30         SCHOOLS  FOR  TEACHERS 

a  pledge  to  repay  the  regular  tuition,  in  case  they  failed  to 
teach  at  least  three  years  out  of  four  immediately  after 
leaving  the  school. 

In  his  second  report  he  again  urged  the  necessity  of  mak- 
ing the  branches  fitting  schools  for  teachers ;  and  in  his 
last  report,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1840,  he  said : 

"We  can  look  to  no  other  source  for  educated,  well  quali- 
fied and  competent  teachers.  Without  these,  the  primary 
schools  cannot  accomplish  what  is  and  ought  to  be  expected 
of  them.  But  without  further  aid  than  can  be  derived  from 
the  proceeds  of  the  University  fund,  the  branches,  it  is 
feared,  must  languish.  It  is,  therefore,  respectfully  sub- 
mitted that  the  lands  granted  to  the  State  in  connection 
with  the  salt  springs  be  appropriated  for  the  sjapport  of 
said  branches." 

One  may  be  pardoned,  as  he  looks  back  over  the  many 
fruitless  efforts  of  succeeding  years,  for  feeling  a  sort  of 
half  painful  regret  that  the  magnificent  scheme  of  "Father 
Pierce"  could  not  have  been  realized,  and  a  dozen  or  twenty 
county  academies  and  teachers'  seminaries  have  been  estab- 
lished and  endowed  from  the  proceeds  of  the  seventy-two 
sections  of  salt  spring  lands  donated  by  Congress  to  the 
State.  The  plan  of  our  first  Suprintendent  for  elevating 
teaching  to  the  rank  and  dignity  of  a  learned  profession,  by 
providing  for  the  proper  education  of  a  sufficient  number 
of  qualified  teachers,  failed.  The  time  had  not  yet  come 
for  such  a  consumation,  however  devoutly  it  might  be 
wished.  Evolution  is  a  slow  process  and  cannot  be  forced 
or  even  much  hastened.  But  none  the  less  are  credit  and 
honor  due  to  the  wisdom  of  his  intentions  and  the  earnest- 
ness of  his  efforts. 


GOVERNOR  MASON'S  OPINION 


131 


It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  plans  and  efforts  of  the 
superintendent  were  seconded  and  supported  by  many  of 
the  other  officers  of  the  State.  The  first  governor,  Mr. 
Mason,  in  his  message  for  1837,  said,  'In  the  organization 
of  your  primary  schools,  which  are  the  foundation  upon 
which  your  whole  system  of  education  must  be  based,  the 
first  measure  essential  to  their  success  and  good  government 
is  the  appointment  of  good  teachers,  of  the  highest  charac- 
ter, both  moral  and  intellectual.  Liberal  salaries  should  be 
allowed  the  instructor,  and  without  this,  you  may  rest  as- 
sured you  must  fail  in  your  object;  as  individuals  in  all 
respects  competent  to  the  charge  of  your  schools  will  be 
excluded  from  them  by  the  parsimoniousness  of  their  com- 
pensation." 

Superintendent  Sawyer,  the  immediate  successor  of  Mr. 
Pierce,  had  recently  come  from  Massachusetts,  and  was 
acquainted  with  the  efforts  for  the  establishment  of  normal 
schools  in  that  State.  He  anticipated  the  opening  of  such 
a  school  in  Michigan  at  no  distant  period ;  but  until  that  time 
arrived,  he  urged  that  "at  least  one  of  the  branches  should 
make  teaching  a  regular  part  of  its  instructions."  He 
added : 

*'A  model  school,  connected  with  this  department,  would 
afford  all  the  aid  that  a  young  man  or  woman  would  want 
to  perfect  him  or  her  in  the  practice  as  well  as  the  theory 
of  teaching;  and  it  is  believed,  that  such  a  school  might 
easily  be  kept  up  the  whole  year,  in  any  or  all  the  places 
where  branches  are  in  operation." 

He  evidently  had  in  mind  a  school  in  which  good  teaching 
might  be  observed,  rather  than  the  more  modern  "practice 
school." 


m-jK 


132         SUPERINTENDENT  COMSTOCK'S  VIEWS 

"Superintendent  Comstock,  who  succeeded  Mr.  Sawyer 
in  1843,  i"  ^^^  of  his  reports,  said : 

"Eligible  teachers  are  all-important.  This  fact  is  more 
deeply  and  generally  impressed  on  the  public  mind  than 
formerly.  A  new  science,  founded  on  the  nature  of  man, 
has  been  ascertained  and  taught.  It  is  pedagogics,  or  the 
science  of  teaching.  This  is  a  distinct  and  most  valuable 
science.  On  it  the  successful  investigation  of  all  other 
sciences  depends.  Its  application  is  the  art  of  teaching. 
It  was  once  imagined  that  almost  every  man  of  a  competent 
education  could  teach  school.  But  to  this  proposition  there 
are  many  exceptions.  It  does  not  follow  that  because  a 
man  has  received  a  liberal  education,  he  is  therefore  a  law- 
yer or  a  physician.  With  all  his  attainments  he  can  be 
neither  till  he  shall  have  faithfully  studied  one  of  these 
learned  professions.  And,  by  a  parity  of  reasoning,  it  is 
plain  that  an  acquaintance  with  general  literature  and  science 
does  not,  of  necessity,  prepare  one  for  the  arduous  but  de- 
lightful business  of  educting  the  undying  mind.  Such  a 
preparation  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  study  of  the  science 
and  art  of  teaching.  Firmly  persuaded  of  this  truth,  many 
of  the  governments  of  the  old  world  and  some  of  our  sister 
States  have  instituted  Normal  Schools,  in  which  the  science 
and  art  of  teaching  are  elucidated  and  enforced.  Model 
schools  are  formed  and  taught  in  these  institutions.  Here 
candidates  for  the  office  of  teacher  see  many  beneficial 
demonstrations  in  reference  to  classification,  methods  of 
teaching  and  government ;  and,  in  short,  whatever  is  valua- 
ble within  the  range  of  human  knowledge  regarding  this 
paramount  interest." 

Ira  Mayhew  became  superintendent  in  1845.     ^t  had  be- 


SUPERINTENDENT  MAYHEWS  VIEWS 


133 


come  evident  by  this  time  that  no  considerable  supply  of 
qualified  teachers  could  be  expected  from  the  branches  of 
the  University,  even  if  they  continued  to  exist,  as  the  reports 
for  1845  showed  only  thirty-six  students  in  these  schools 
taking  the  teacher's  course.  .  The  time  had  come  for  effort 
in  other  directions.  Mr.  Mayhew  had  had  experience  of 
school  work  in  New  York,  and  had  some  knowledge  of  the 
gatherings  of  teachers  in  what  were  called  institutes,  and 
also  of  teachers'  associations  of  a  more  general  character. 
He  made  vigorous  and  continued  efforts  to  secure  the  orga- 
nization of  societies  for  mutual  improvement  among  teachers 
and  other  friends  of  educational  progress.  A  considerable 
number  of  such  societies  were  formed,  but  they  accomplished 
comparatively  little,  and  soon  ceased  to  exist. 

He  urged  also  the  publication  of  an  "Educational  Jour- 
nal," under  the  control  of  the  department  of  public  instruc- 
tion, and  aided  by  a  legislative  appropriation.  Superintend- 
ents Pierce  and  Sawyer  had  both  made  some  efforts  in  this 
direction,  but  with  no  permanent  results.  Little  could  be 
hoped  for  from  journals  of  this  sort  in  the  way  of  improving 
the  qualifications  of  teachers  in  the  primary  schools. 

Mr.  Mayhew's  next  movement  was  in  the  direction  of 
Teachers'  Institutes. 

The  teachers'  institute  as  a  means  of  improving  the  quali- 
ty of  the  preparation  of  common  school  teachers  is  now  well 
known.  In  1845,  it  was  a  new  device.  The  first  in  New 
York  was  held  in  1843.  I^  his  report  for  1845,  Mr.  May- 
hew  advocated  the  holding  of  such  institutes  and  suggested 
a  liberal  appropriation  by  the  Legislature  for  their  support. 
He  writes :  "I  entertain  the  opinion  that  if  the  State  has 
$25,0(X)  to  appropriate  annually  for  the  promotion  of  com- 


134  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES 

mon  school  education,  it  would  be  productive  of  greater 
good  to  apply  one  or  two  thousand  dollars,  or  even  five 
thousand  dollars,  to  assist  in  defraying  the  necessary  ex- 
penses of  maintaining  teachers'  institutes  in  the  different 
counties,  and  the  residue  to  the  support  of  schools,  than  to 
apply  the  whole  to  the  payment  of  unqualified  teachers,  or 
even  to  those  of  ordinary  attainments." 

The  first  institute  in  the  State,  so  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained, was  held  by  Superintendent  Mayhew  at  Jackson  in 
October  of  1846,  and  was  attended  by  about  thirty  teachers. 
In  his  report  for  that  year  he  says :  "It  should  be  generally 
understood  that  the  main  design  of  the  teachers'  institutes 
is  to  impart  professional  instruction ;  to  consider  and  dis- 
cuss the  best  means  of  interesting  and  governing  children 
in  our  primary  schools,  and  the  most  improved  and  success- 
ful methods  of  imparting  instruction  in  the  several  branches 
of  study  ordinarily  pursued  therein."  He  suggested  that 
a  series  of  five  or  six  institutes  be  held  in  different  parts  of 
the  State  during  the  year  1847,  expressing  the  opinion  that 
they  would  be  well  attended  and  of  great  value  to  the 
schools. 

For  several  years  institutes  were  held  in  different  parts 
of  the  State,  the  expenses  being  provided  for  by  the  liber- 
ality of  the  citizens  of  the  localities  where  they  were  held. 
In  the  year  1855  the  Legislature  passed  an  act  authorizing 
the  State  Superintendent,  upon  certain  conditions,  to  ap- 
point and  hold  institutes  in  the  various  counties  of  the 
State,  and  making  an  annual  appropriation  of  eighteen 
hundred  dollars  for  this  purpose.  The  institutes  were  to 
continue  in  session  not  less  than  ten  working  days,  and  not 
more  than  two  hundred  dollars  could  be  expended  upon 


TEACHERS'   INSTITUTES  135 

any  one  institute.  Under  the  provisions  of  this  act  from 
eight  to  ten  institutes  were  usually  held  each  year.  An 
amendment  to  the  law  in  1861  allowed  institutes  to  be  held 
for  five  days,  but  reduced  the  amount  which  could  be  ex- 
pended for  any  single  institute  to  one  hundred  dollars. 
From  1862  to  1867  ^^^  average  number  of  institutes  held 
annually  was  between  eleven  and  twelve.  Under  the  county 
superintendency  law,  enacted  in  1867,  many  county  institutes 
were  held  in  addition  to  the  regular  State  institutes,  of 
which  there  were  annually  an  average  of  twelve  up  to  1867. 
The  amount  which  could  be  drawn  yearly  from  the  State 
treasury  for  institute  purposes  had,  to  this  time,  remained 
at  eighteen  hundred  dollars,  and  there  were  no  other  re- 
sources for  their  support. 

From  1855  to  1876  inclusive,  as  officially  reported,  219 
State  institutes  were  held,  at  an  expense  of  $27,715,  and 
with  a  total  attendance  of  19,272.  This  agency  for  improv- 
ing the  qualifications  of  teachers  had  done  much  good  work 
during  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  but  had  not  accom- 
plished all  that  Mr.  Mayhew  and  others  had  hoped  for. 
It  had  reached  the  teachers  who  had  most  need  to  be  im- 
proved to  only  a  very  limited  extent. 

The  enactment  of  1877,  relating  to  ''teachers  institutes" 
changed  the  aspect  of  affairs  and  introduced  a  new  and 
more  promising  era.  County  institute  funds  were  created 
by  requiring  teachers  to  pay  examination  fees,  male  teach- 
ers one  dollar  annually,  and  female  teachers  fifty  cents. 
At  first  an  institute  registration  fee  of  fifty  cents  was  also 
required  of  persons  who  had  not  paid  an  examination  fee, 
but  this  was  soon  abandoned  on  account  of  its  unfavorable 
influence  upon  the  attendance. 


136  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES 

Under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  the  Superintendent  of 
pubHc  instruction  was  required  to  provide  for  an  institute 
annually  in  every  organized  county  of  the  State,  in  which 
there  were  not  less  than  one  thousand  children  of  school 
ages.  Counties  with  a  smaller  number  of  children  might 
be  united  for  institute  purposes. 

If  the  institute  fund  of  any  county  was  not  sufficient  to 
defray  the  necessary  expenses  of  the  annual  institute,  a 
sum  not  exceeding  sixty  dollars,  by  a  recent  amendment  not 
exceeding  one  hundred  dollars,  could  be  drawn  from  the 
State  treasury  for  a  five  days'  institute;  provided  that  not 
more  -than  eighteen  hundred  dollars  could  be  drawn  for 
institutes  in  any  one  year.  The  limit  has  recently  been 
made  three  thousand  dollars.  A  special  State  institute 
might  also  be  held  annually,  at  an  expense  not  exceeding 
four  hundred  dollars. 

The  number  of  institutes  has  increased  rapidly  under  this 
law;  in  1880,  sixty-five  were  held;  in  1890,  sixty-eight;  and 
in  1900,  eighty.  The  length  of  an  institute  is  determined 
by  the  Superintendent,  and  varies  from  one  day  to  twenty 
,  days.  The  exercises  vary  with  the  length  and  the  immediate 
purpose  of  the  institute. 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

SCHOOIv  AT  YPSII.ANTI. 

The  first  State  normal  school  in  the  United  States  was 
opened  in  Massachusetts  in  1839.  The  New  York  normal 
school  at  Albany  was  established  in  1844,  and  a  normal 
school  in  Connecticut  in  1848.  Superintendents  Pierce, 
Sawyer,  and  Comstock  made  reference  to  normal  schools 


NORMAI,  SCHOOLS  137 

without  urging  the  immediate  establishment  of  such  a  school. 
Superintendent  Mayhew,  in  1848,  was  not  prepared  to 
recommend  the  establishment  of  a  normal  school,  believing 
that  more  could  be  accomplished  for  the  preparation  of 
teachers,  at  that  time,  by  means  of  institutes  and  teachers' 
associations. 

In  1847  ^^-  Pierce,  then  a  private  citizen,  advocated  the 
organization  of  a  normal  school  to  be  supported  by  funds 
derived  from  the  sale  of  Salt  Spring  lands.  In  the  same 
year.  Governor  Ransom  referred  with  approval  to  the  intro- 
duction of  normal  schools  as  a  part  of  the  educational  sys- 
tem of  the  State. 

Francis  W.  Shearman  was  appointed  State  Superintend- 
ent in  1849,  ^^^  under  his  efficient  administration  the  first 
Michigan  State  normal  school  was  established.  The  orig- 
inal act  providing  for  the  school  bears  the  date  of  March 
28,  1849;  3.  supplementary  act  became  a  law  three  days 
later.  The  two  acts  were  amended  and  consolidated  the 
next  year,  and  under  the  provisions  of  the  consolidated  act 
the  school  was  organized. 

The  passage  of  the  original  law  was  procured  largely  by 
the  efforts  of  Hon.  O.  C.  Comstock,  former  State  Superin- 
tendent, who  was  chairman  of  the  committee  on  education 
in  the  lower  House  of  the  Legislature.  The  act  created  a 
State  Board  of  Education  for  the  purpose  of  locating,  organ- 
izing, and  controlling  the  school. 

The  statute  said:  **The  exclusive  purpose  of  the  school 
shall  be  the  instruction  of  persons,  both  male  and  female, 
in  the  art  of  teaching,  and  in  all  the  various  branches  that 
pertain  to  a  good  common  school  education.  Also  to  give 
instruction  in  the  mechanic  arts,  and  in  the  arts  of  hus- 


138  NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  YPSILANTI 

bandry  and  agricultural  chemistry ;  in  the  fundamental  laws 
of  the  United  States,  and  in  what  regards  the  rights  and 
duties  of  citizens."  The  "purpose"  was  broad  enough  to 
authorize  the  organization  of  a  college  of  mechanics  and 
agriculture  with  a  department  of  civics  attached.  A  policy 
based  upon  this  clause  had,  for  a  few  years,  an  important 
influence  in  the  development  of  the  institution. 

The  Board  selected  Ypsilanti  as  the  location  of  the  school 
in  consequence  of  the  liberal  offer  made  by  the  citizens  of 
a  site  for  the  buildings,  and  of  $13,500  in  cash  for  building 
purposes. 

The  main  building,  55  x  100  feet  and  three  stories  in 
height,  constructed  of  brick,  was  completed  and  dedicated, 
with  appropriate  exercises,  on  the  fifth  day  of  October,  1852. 

The  principal  address  at  the  dedication  was  made  by 
''Father  Pierce,"  upon  the  subject,  "A  perfect  school  sys- 
tem." Naturally  enough  the  tone  of  the  address  indicated 
an  exultant  state  of  mind  in  the  speaker.  It  could  hardly 
have  been  otherwise.  A  purpose  which  he  had  most  ardent- 
ly cherished  had  been  accomplished;  an  institution  espec- 
ially designed  for  the  education  and  training  of  teachers  for 
the  common  schools  of  the  State  had  been  established.  An 
institute  of  four  weeks  followed  the  dedication ;  but  the 
regular  opening  of  the  school  was  deferred  until  the  Legis- 
lature should  provide  means  for  defraying  the  current  ex- 
penses of  the  institution.  An  appropriation  having  been 
obtained  for  this  purpose,  the  first  term  commenced  on 
March  29,  1853,  with  five  teachers,  one  of  whom,  however, 
devoted  only  a  small  portion  of  his  time  to  school  work. 
Mr.  A,  S.  Welch  was  Principal;  Miss  A.  C.  Rogers,  Pre- 
ceptress;    Mr.      Orson     Jackson,     teacher     of      Mathe- 


SCHOOL  AT  YPSILANTI  139 

matics ;  Rev.  J.  A.  Wilson,  of  Intellectual  Philosophy ;  and 
Mr.  J.  M.  B.  Sill,  of  English  Grammar  and  Elocution.  The 
scope  of  this  chapter  does  not  include  an  extended  sketch 
of  the  history  of  the  school.  Its  early  courses  of  studies 
were  determined  by  educational  conditions  then  existing  in 
the  State,  and  the  instruction  was,  in  the  main,  what  would 
now  be  termed  "academic."  Changed  conditions  have  pro- 
duced corresponding  changes  in  the  extent  and  character 
of  the  studies  and  instruction,  and  the  institution  has  aimed 
to  keep  abreast  with  educational  progress.  In  1899  an  act 
of  the  Legislature  changed  the  name  of  the  school  to 
"Michigan  State  Normal  College."  For  several  years  the 
number  of  students,  completing  the  full  course  and  graduat- 
ing, was  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  total  attendance. 
This  resulted  from  the  extent  and  nature  of  the  single  pre- 
scribed course,  from  the  meager  preparation  of  a  majority 
of  the  pupils,  and  from  the  demand  for  teachers  with  even 
a  very  moderate  professional  preparation  for  their  work. 
The  first  class  of  three  graduated  in  1854.  The  number  of 
graduates  during  the  first  twenty-five  years  of  its  existence 
was  728,  being  an  average  of  only  about  thirty  per  year. 
To  the  year  1899  the  graduates  had  been  3347,  and  the  year- 
ly attendance  had  become  something  over  1000. 

It  was  evident  from  the  first  that  a  single  normal  school, 
however  largely  attended  or  efficiently  conducted,  could  do 
but  little  toward  supplying  the  demand  for  qualified  teachers 
in  the  common  schools.  Consequently  efforts  were  made 
in  other  directions,  which  will  be  briefly  referred  to  further 
on. 


I40  ADDITIONAL   NORMAL   SCHOOLS 

ADDITIONAL   NORMAIv   SCHOOLS. 

The  question  of  additional  normal  schools  was  occasion- 
ally discussed  in  teachers'  associations  and  elsewhere,  but 
public  sentiment,  even  among  teachers,  was,  for  several 
years,  divided  upon  the  question.  In  1867  the  State  asso- 
ciation resolved :  "That  we  deem  it  of  prime  importance  to 
the  welfare  and  future  progress  of  the  primary  schools  of 
the  State  that  there  be  another  normal  school  established, 
at  an  early  period,  in  the  western  or  northwestern  portion 
of  the  State."  At  a  meeting  of  superintendents  and  princi- 
pals of  union  schools,  in  the  following  year,  the  expression 
of  opinion  was  practically  unanimous  in  favor  of  establish- 
ing more  normal  schools,  as  soon  as  possible.  Similar  ex- 
pressions occurred  in  most  of  the  subsequent  annual  meet- 
ings of  the  State  association,  but  no  concerted  action  was 
taken. 

In  his  report  for  1891,  the  Superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction took  strong  ground  in  favor  of  providing  for  at 
least  one  additional  normal  school,  to  be  located  where  it 
would  accommodate  the  people  of  the  Upper  Peninsula. 
This  recommendation  did  not  produce  immediate  effect, 
but  served  to  give  direction  to  public  opinions  and  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  legislative  action. 

CENTRAL   STATE    NORMAL    SCHOOL   AT    MT.    PLEASANT. 

In  1 89 1,  under  the  leadership  of  Professor  C.  F.  R.  Bel- 
lows, for  many  .years  connected  with  the  normal  school  at 
Ypsilanti,  the  citizens  of  Mt.  Pleasant  formed  an  association 
and  established  a  normal  school.  In  1895  they  offered  to 
donate  the  buildings  and  grounds  to  the  State,  on  condition 


NORMAL   SCHOOL   AT   MARQUETTE  141 

that  the  institution  should  be  adopted  and  supported  as  a 
State  normal  school.  This  generous  offer  was  accepted  and 
the  school  became  the  property  of  the  State.  The  legisla- 
tive act  accepting  the  school  and  providing  for  its  manage- 
ment, declared  its  purpose  to  be,  ''the  preparation  and  train- 
ing of  persons  for  teaching  in  the  several  district  schools 
and  in  the  primary  departments  of  the  graded  schools  of 
the  State,"  and  placed  it  under  the  control  of  tlie  State 
board  of  education.  The  school  is  doing  most  excellent 
service  in  carrying  out  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  created. 
In  1901  its  graduating  class  numbered  100,  and  its  attend- 
ance 400. 

THE  N0RTHE:RN  state  NORMAIv  school  at  MARQUETTE. 

A  third  school,  known  as  the  "Northern  State  Normal 
School,"  was  established  at  Marquette  in  the  Upper  Penin- 
sula, in  1899,  "for  the  purpose  of  instructing  persons  in 
the  several  branches  pertaining  to  a  public  school  education, 
and  in  the  science  and  art  of  teaching  the  same."  The  site 
for  the  school  was  donated  by  citizens  of  Marquette,  and 
other  valuable  gifts  have  been  received  from  the  same 
source.  The  attendance  during  the  school  year  1 900-1 901 
was  198,  and  twenty-five  students  completed  the  course  for 
high  school  graduates. 

SYSTEM  OE  NORMAI,  SCHOOLS. 

The  establishment  of  the  Central  and  Northern  normal 
schools  led  the  Board  of  Education  to  adopt  a  plan  for  uni- 
fying the  normal  school  work  of  the  State.,  and  to  prevent 
any  undue  rivalry  between  the  different  schools.     The  plan 


142  SYSTEM  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS 

provides  for  an  officer  with  the  official  title  of  "President  of 
the  Michigan  system  of  Normal  Schools."  This  officer  has 
the  general  supervising  control  of  the  schools,  with  power, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Education  and  with 
the  advice  and  counsel  of  the  Principals  of  the  several 
Schools,  to  prescribe  courses  of  instruction,  and  to  recom- 
mend persons  for  appointment  as  teachers  and  to  dismiss 
or  remove  teachers  for  any  reasonable  cause.  Each  school 
has  a  principal  who  performs  the  usual  duties  of  such  an 
officer  in  the  absence  of  the  President  and  cooperates  with 
the  President  as  previously  stated.  The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion is  required  by  law  "to  maintain  substantial  uniformity 
and  reciprocity  in  the  courses  of  study"  in  the  different 
schools  so  that  students  can  pass  from  one  school  to  another 
without  loss  of  time,  or  standing  in  studies.  The  provisions 
relating  to  graduation,  diplomas,  certificates,  and  degrees 
are  described  under  the  appropriate  heading. 

OTHER  ArxE:NCIES  FOR  THE  PREPARATION  OE  TEACHERS. 

More  than  forty  years  elapsed  after  the  dedication  of  the 
first  normal  school  building  in  1852  before  another  State 
normal  school  was  established.  During  this  period  numer- 
ous plans  were  proposed  and  advocated  for  securing  addi- 
tional facilities  for  the  instruction  and  training  of  teachers. 
The  number  of  institutes  was  increased  and  their  character 
improved ;  associations  of  teachers  were  organized,  and  edu- 
cational periodicals  and  papers  were  published  and  circu- 
lated. But  the  feeling  was  general  that  all  these  means 
were  insufficient,  and  were  only  temporary  make-shifts. 
The  demand  was  for  something  better  and  more  permanent. 


TEACHERS'  CLASSES   IN  UNION  SCHOOLS        143 

^ 

te:achi<:rs'  classes  in  union  schooi^s. 

Superintendent  Mayhew  had  advocated  the  organization 
of  union  schools,  giving  as  one  reason  that  they  would  serve, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  as  substitutes  for  normal  schools. 
In  1859  Superintendent  Gregory,  after  admitting  that  "it 
would  be  futile  to  attempt  to  supply  all  our  schools  with 
qualified  teachers  by  means  of  normal  schools,"  stated  that 
many  of  the  union  schools  and  some  of  the  colleges  "had 
organized  teachers'  classes,  and  that  some  hundreds  of 
teachers  are  annually  sent  forth  from  these  classes  to  give 
instruction  in  the  public  schools  of  the  State."  He  recom- 
mended the  encouragement  of  this  work ;  suggested  that 
the  members  of  such  classes  be  examined  and  certificated  by 
State  authority ;  and  that  a  fund  be  created  bv  the  sale  of 
swamp  lands,  or  from  some  other  source,  the  income  of 
which  should  be  "distributed  annually  to  those  institutions 
which  should  establish  normal  or  teachers'  classes,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  pupils  who  should  pass  satisfac- 
torily the  annual  examinations."  In  his  report  for  i860, 
Mr.  Gregory  recommended  that  the  Superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  be  authorized  to  select  such  institutions  as  may 
be  suitably  located  and  otherwise  adapted  to  the  service, 
not  exceeding  one  for  each  county,  and  prescribe  a  course 
of  normal  training  and  instruction  for  the  teachers'  classes 
to  be  taught  therein."  The  selected  schools  were  to  receive 
compensation  for  the  service  rendered  to  the  State  in  this 
way.  An  appropriation  of  $3,000,  was  recommended  for 
use  during  the  next  two  years.  The  Board  of  Education 
addressed  a  memorial  to  the  Legislature  fully  endorsing 
the  recommendation  of  the  Superintendent,  and  asking  an 


144  TEACHERS'  CLASSES  AND  TRAINING  SCHOOLS 

appropriation  from  the  income  of  the  swamp  land  fund. 
Mr.  Gregory  continued  his  efforts  in  this  direction  during 
the  entire  six  years  of  his  superintendency,  going  so  far 
as  to  prepare  an  outline  course  of  study  for  teachers'  classes. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  he  failed  to  secure  the  de- 
sired legislation.  His  efforts,  however,  were  not  without 
results.  For  several  years  teachers'  classes  were  kept  up, 
during  a  part  of  the  year,  in  many  of  the  leading  high 
schools.  Superintendent  Hosford,  the  immediate  successor 
of  Mr.  Gregory,  pursued  the  same  policy  as  his  predecessor, 
and  with  equal  lack  of  success  so  far  as  legislation  was  con- 
cerned. At  a  later  period  several  of  the  larger  cities  establish- 
ed normal  training  schools  to  prepare  teachers  for  their  own 
schools ;  but  these  are  local  institutions  having  no  organic 
connections  with  the  State  system.  While  the  plan  so 
earnestly  advocated  by  Superintendent  Gregory  was  never 
adopted  by  the  State,  the  high  schools  have  done  most  ex- 
cellent service  in  raising  the  standard  of  qualifications  for 
teachers,  and  also  in  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the 
district  schools  in  their  immediate  neighborhoods. 

THK    SCIENCE    AND    ART    01?    TEACHING    IN    THE    UNIVERSITY. 

While  the  history  of  higher  education  is  outside  the  prov- 
ince of  this  work,  it  will  be  germane  to  our  purpose  to 
make  a  brief  statement  of  the  services  rendered  by  the 
University  and  the  Colleges  for  the  direct  purpose  of  im- 
proving the  primary  and  secondary  schools.  The  relations 
of  the  University  to  the  high  schools  and  its  influence  in 
their  development  have  been  noticed  in  another  connection. 
These  relations  necessarily,  though  indirectly,  affected  the 


PEDAGOGY  IN   THE  UNIVERSITY  145 

character  and  qualifications  of  the  teachers  in  these  schools. 
A  more  direct  and  intimate  relation  with  the  teaching  force 
seemed  possible  and  desirable, — a  relation  which  should 
help  to  give  a  more  complete  unity  to  the  educational  sys- 
tem of  the  State  as  a  whole.  The  establishment  of  a  de- 
partment or  chair  of  pedagogy  in  the  University  was  a  sub- 
ject of  frequent  discussion  among  teachers  and  others  for 
several  years  before  any  official  action  was  taken  in  that  di- 
rection by  the  authorities  of  the  University.  Some  tenta- 
tive experiments  were  made.  During  the  year  i860  State 
Superintendent  John  M.  Gregory  gave  a  course  of  lectures 
before  some  of  the  classes  upon  practical  problems  of  edu- 
cation which  were  received  with  much  favor.  In  his  report 
for  1873  Superintendent  D.  B.  Briggs  recornmended  the 
establishment  of  an  educational  department,  and  repeated 
his  recommendation  in  the  following  year. 

President  Angell,  in  his  report  for  the  same  year,  referred 
to  the  subject  with  approval,  and  stated  that  the  Faculty 
had  decided  "to  offer  to  the  members  of  the  graduating 
class  who  should,  by  special  examinations,  show  special  fit- 
ness for  teaching  certain  branches,  a  'Teacher's  diploma,' 
signed  by  the  President  and  the  Professor  in  charge  of  the 
studies  pursued."  This  appears  to  have  been  the  first  offi- 
cial action  of  the  University  authorities  upon  the  subject. 
The  proposed  diploma  had  no  legal  significance,  but  was, 
nevertheless,  of  much  value  to  persons  seeking  positions  as 
teachers  of  special  studies. 

In  his  report  for  1878  the  President  suggested  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  non-resident  lecturer  upon  Pedagogics  for 
a  part  of  the  year  to  test  the  value  of  such  instruction  in  the 
University.     Instead  of  adopting  this  suggestion,  the  Board 


146  AIMS   OF  THE  DEPARTMENT 

of  Regents,  in  June  of  the  next  year,  established  a  depart- 
ment or  chair  of  ''The  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching."  The 
aim  of  the  Regents  in  establishing  the  department  was  stated 
to  be:  (i)  To  fit  University  students  for  the  higher  posi- 
tions in  the  public  school  service;  (2)  To  secure  to  teaching 
the  rights,  prerogatives,  and  advantages  of  a  profession ; 
(3)  To  give  a  more  perfect  unity  to  our  State  educational 
system,  by  bringing  the  secondary  schools  into  closer  rela- 
tion with  the  University." 

Some  tentative  efforts  had  been  previously  made  in  two 
or  three  institutions  of  higher  learning  in  other  States,  but 
no  permanent  departments  or  chairs  had  been  established. 
In  referring  to  this  action  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  in  his  report  for 
1889-90  said:  "It  was  not  until  1879  that  a  definite  step 
was  taken  in  the  way  of  recognizing  pedagogy  as  a  science 
and  also  of  recognizing  the  necessity  of  training  teachers 
for  schools  above  the  elementary  grade.  In  that  year  the 
University  of  Michigan  established  a  chair  which  took  the 
expressive  name  of  the  'Science  and  Art  of  Teaching.'  " 

The  work  of  the  department  has  been  ably  performed  and 
has  been  of  great  service  to  secondary  education  in  the 
State.  The  University  has  been  peculiarly  fortunate  in 
the  two  men  who  have  thus  far  filled  the  chair.  Dr.  W. 
H.  Payne  was  appointed  in  1879,  when  the  chair  was  estab- 
lished, and  served  until  1887,  when  he  resigned  to  accept 
the  charge  of  an  important  educational  institution  in  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee.  Dr.  B.  A.  Hinsdale  filled  the  chair  from 
1887  until  his  death  in  November,  1900,  when  Dr.  Payne 
was  recalled  to  the  position. 


TEACHERS'  COURSES  IN  COLLEGES  147 

te:ache:rs'  courses  in  the:  coi^leges. 

As  previously  stated,  teachers'  classes  were  organized  in 
most  of  the  denominational  Colleges  of  the  State  at  an  early 
period.  The  courses  of  instruction  for  these  classes  were 
of  varying  degrees  of  excellency,  but  were  generally  such 
as  to  be  of  essential  advantage  to  the  students  intending  to 
teach,  and  consequently  to  the  public  schools  of  the  State. 
Gradually  the  courses  were  made  more  extended  and  more 
systematic;  and  the  feeling  became  very  strong  among  the 
teachers  in  these  institutions  and  among  their  supporters 
and  patrons,  that  the  pedagogical  work  done  in  them  should 
be  recognized,  in  some  appropriate  way  by  the  State. 

As  a  result  in  1893,  the  Legislature  passed  an  act,  author- 
izing the  Board  of  Education  to  grant  teachers'  certificates, 
(the  character  of  which  will  be  explained  in  another  place) 
to  graduates  of  those  colleges  which,  in  addition  to  the  reg- 
ular four  years'  course,  provided  a  course  of  study  in  the 
science  and  art  of  teaching  satisfactory  to  the  Board.  Col- 
leges complying  with  the  conditions  prescribed,  became 
an  integral  part  of  the  State  system  of  public  instruction 
so  far  as  the  teachers'  departments  are  concerned.  Grad- 
uates of  the  Colleges  are  rendering  important  service  to  the 
Commonwealth,  chiefly  in  the  schools  of  secondary  instruc- 
tion. 

SUMMARY  o^  the:   i^aciutie:s   for  the  preparation   o^ 

TEACHERS   EOR  THE   PRIMARY  AND   SECONDARY   SCHOOES. 

1.  The  system  of  teachers'  institutes. 

2.  The  Normal  college  at  Ypsilanti. 

3.  The  normal  schools  at  Mount  Pleasant  and  Mar- 
quette. 


148  PROVISIONS  ADEQUATE  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

4.  Department  of  the  science  and  art  of  teaching  in  the 
University. 

5.  Teachers'  Courses  in  the  colleges. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  facilities  for  the  preparation  of 
teachers  for  the  secondary  schools  are  ample.  It  is  only 
for  the  primary  schools  that  any  additional  facilities  of  any 
kind  are  needed. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

CERTIFICATION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  SUPERVISION  OF 

SCHOOLS. 

TOWNSHIP    SCHOOIv    INSPECTORS. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  first  School  law  of  the  State 
the  township  School  inspectors  were  the  examining  and 
supervising  board  of  the  township.  They  were  required 
to  examine  all  persons  proposing  to  teach  in  the  public 
Schools  "in  regard  to  moral  character,  learning,  and  ability 
to  teach  School,"  and  to  give  certificates,  valid  for  one  year, 
to  those  who  passed  a  satisfactory  examination.  The  Super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  prescribed  the  form  of  the 
certificates  which  were  all  of  one  grade.  The  branches  of 
study,  in  which  examinations  were  to  be  made  were  not 
indicated  at  first.  An  early  amendment  of  the  statute  made 
the  certificates  valid  for  two  years,  and  forbade  the  granting 
of  a  certificate  to  any  person  who  did  not  possess  *'a  thor- 
ough and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  several  branches  of 
study  usually  taught  in  primary  schools."  By  implication 
this  determined  the  extent  of  the  examination. 

The  law  also  directed  that  some  member  of  the  board  of 
inspectors  should  visit  each  school  in  the  township,  at  least 
once  in  each  school  year,  who  should  ''inquire  into  the  condi- 
tion of  the  school,  examine  the  scholars,  and  give  such  ad- 
vice to  both  teachers  and  pupils  as  he  deemed  necessary  or 
beneficial."  An  amendment  to  the  law  in  1859  allowed  the 
inspectors,  in  their  discretion,  to  grant  certificates  "for  a 

149 


150       CHARACTER  OF  EXAMINATIONS 

term  of  not  less  than  six  months  nor  more  than  two  years." 
This  was  the  first  movement  towards  grading  certificates. 
No  change  has  been  made  touching  the  studies  in  which 
examinations  should  be  required,  but  the  organization  of 
graded  schools,  in  which  higher  branches  were  taught,  led 
the  State  Superintendent  to  append  a  note  to  the  law  say- 
ing: "Whenever  the  applicant  proposes  to  teach  in  the 
higher  departments  of  a  graded  school,  or  in  any  advanced 
primary  school,  he  should  be  examined  in  the  branches  he 
will  be  expected  to  teach." 

Until  the  passage  of  the  act  creating  the  office  of  County 
Superintendent  in  1867,  all  examinations  of  teachers  of  all 
grades,  and  all  supervision  of  the  common  schools  were 
made  by  the  township  boards  of  school  inspectors.  In  1857 
the  graduates  of  the  normal  school  had  been  relieved  from 
the  necessity  of  an  examination,  but  the  graduates  of  the 
University,  if  they  desired  to  teach  in  the  public  schools, 
had  to  submit  to  an  examination  by  the  inspectors.  This 
system  of  certification  and  supervision  continued  for  thirty 
years.  Of  its  general  character  Superintendent  Hosford, 
in  his  report  for  1866,  wrote :  "The  examination,  as  con- 
ducted in  a  multitude  of  instances,  is  simply  a  form ;  or, 
perhaps,  to  say  that  it  is  a  mere  farce,  would  be  saying  what 
is  more  nearly  the  truth,  and  not  unfrequently  are  certifi- 
cates given  without  even  the  form  of  an  examination.  The 
present  system  of  examining  teachers,  so  far  as  the  secur- 
ing of  competent  instructors  by  it  is  concerned,  is  a  com- 
plete failure,  and  the  system  of  school  supervision,  so  far 
as  the  improvement  of  the  schools  by  it  is  concerned,  is 
equally  a  failure." 


COUNTY   SUPERINTENDENTS  151 

COUNTY  supe:rinte:nde:nts. 

The  lack  of  any  efficient  supervision  of  the  schools  was 
recognized  from  the  very  first  organization  of  the  system, 
and  efforts  were  begun  at  an  early  period  to  secure  im- 
provement in  that  direction.  The  initiative  in  the  strug- 
gle to  obtain  a  county  or  legislative  district  superintendency, 
similar  to  that  of  New  York,  was  taken  by  the  State  teach- 
ers' association  in  1855,  ^7  ^^^^  appointment  of  Professors 
Gregory,  Welch,  and  Boise  a  committee  to  prepare  a  me- 
morial or  petititon  to  the  Legislature,  praying  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  such  a  system.  At  the  next  meeting  of  the  asso- 
ciation the  committee  reported  progress,  and  was  continued 
with  the  addition  of  two  members.  This  committee  visited 
Lansing  during  the  session  of  the  Legislature,  consulted 
with  leading  members  of  that  body,  who  were  favorable  to 
the  measure,  but,  in  view  of  the  general  sentiment  then 
existing,  deemed  it  inexpedient  to  attempt  anything  further 
at  that  time.  Subseqtiently  a  carefully  prepared  circular, 
setting  forth  the  defects  of  the  existing  system  and  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  county  system,  was  issued  and  extensively 
distributed  throughout  the  State.  The  association  contin- 
ued its  efforts  until  they  were  finally  crowned  with  success. 

The  department  of  public  instruction  cooperated  with  the 
teachers'  association,  and  at  some  periods,  gave  direction 
to  its  movements.  Superintendent  Mayhew,  in  1855,  ^^^~ 
ommended  a  school  commissioner  in  each  senatorial  dis- 
trict of  the  State  who  should  examine  the  teachers  and 
supervise  the  schools  of  his  district.  In  his  report  for  i860. 
Superintendent  Gregory  urgently  advocated  the  county 
Superintendency,  suggesting  that  the  Superintendent  should 


152  COUNTY  SYSTEM  ESTABLISHED 

be  elected,  for  a  term  of  two  years,  by  the  township  school 
inspectors.  He  deprecated  his  election  by  popular  vote, 
since  this  would  bring  the  office  into  the  region  of  politics, 
and  he  insisted  that  no  one  should  be  eligible  to  the  super- 
intendency  except  "a  man  of  competent  learning  and  of 
practical  skill  and  experience  in  the  art  of  teaching."  As 
a  further  safeguard  he  might  be  commissioned  by  the  State 
Superintendent  and  be  subject  to  removal  by  that  officer 
for  sufficient  cause.  Superintendent  Hosford,  in  his  report 
for  1866,  made  an  extended  argument  for  the  county  super- 
intendency,  based  chiefly  upon  the  results  of  the  system  in 
other  States. 

By  this  time  public  sentiment  had  become  thoroughly 
aroused  upon  the  subject,  and  the  Legislature  of  1867,  ^Y 
an  unexpectedly  large  majority,  enacted  a  law  establishing 
the  county  system.  At  its  next  meeting  the  State  associa- 
tion resolved:  "that  we  hail  the  county  Miperintendency ; 
we  recognize  in  it  a  most  important  step  toward  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  primary  school  to  a  higher  and  more  powerful 
place  in  the  moralizing  and  Christianizing  influences  of  the 
day." 

This  resolution  expressed  the  general  feeling  of  the 
teachers  of  the  State  and  of  other  friends  of  educational 
progress.  The  law  provided  for  the  election  of  the  Super- 
intendents, for  a  term  of  two  years,  by  vote  of  the  people 
at  the  April  township  meetings.  The  men  chosen  at  the 
first  election  were,  as  a  whole,  a  choice  body.  Many  of 
them  had  allowed  themselves  to  be  nominated  and  elected, 
not  because  they  desired  the  position,  but  for  the  reason  that 
they  were  greatly  interested  in  the  success  of  the  system. 
Among  them  were  Hon.  John  D.  Pierce,  the  first  Superin- 


THE  COUNTY  SYSTEM 


153 


tendent  of  public  instruction  in  the  State;  Professor  D.  B. 
Briggs,  subsequently  elected  State  Superintendent;  C.  F. 
R.  Bellows,  H.  C.  Ford,  W.  S.  Perry,  J.  M.  Ballou,  D. 
Putnam,  and  others  of  equal  worth. 

The  compensation  of  the  county  Superintendent  within 
minimum  and  maximum  limits  fixed  by  the  statute,  was  de- 
termined by  the  county  boards  of  supervisions:  The  examina- 
tion and  certification  of  teachers  were  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  superintendents,  except  in  counties  with  ten  or 
a  less  number  of  districts ;  for  such  counties  the  township 
inspectors  continued  in  authority  as  before.  Three  grades 
of  certificates,  of  such  form  as  the  State  Superintendent 
prescribed,  were  provided  for;  the  first  grade  was  valid 
for  two  years ;  the  second,  for  one  year ;  both  good  through- 
out the  county.  The  third  was  valid  for  only  six  months 
and  in  a  specified  township.  Examinations  were  to  be  held 
in  each  township  at  least  once  a  year.  The  extent  of  the 
examination  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  examiner,  with 
only  the  provision  that  it  must  include  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  grammar,  geography,  and  arithmetic. 

The  superintendent  was  to  visit  each  school  in  the  county 
at  least  once  in  the  year,  examine  into  the  modes  of  instruc- 
tion and  discipline,  counsel  with  teachers  and  school  offi- 
cers, inquire  into  the  condition  of  school  houses,  of  district 
and  township  libraries,  and  promote  the  improvement  of  the 
schools  by  public  lectures,  teachers'  institutes,  and  all  other 
available  means. 

Under  the  workings  of  this  system  great  improvements 
in  the  schools  of  many  of  the  counties  were  made,  and  the 
association  of  county  superintendents  did  good  service  to 
education  generally  in  the  State.     Gradually  some  serious 


154  THE  TOWNSHIP  SYSTEM  AGAIN 

defects  in  the  law  manifested  themselves,  and  various  causes 
conspired  to  produce  dissatisfaction  with  the  system,  and 
to  create  a  demand  for  a  change. 

TOWNSHIP  supe:rinti:nde:nts. 

In  1875  the  Legislature  repealed  the  county  superinten- 
dency  law  and  substituted  a  system  of  township  superinten- 
dents, differing  only  a  little  from  the  discarded  and  worth- 
less plan  of  township  inspectors.  The  township  superinten- 
dent, in  reality,  took  the  place  of  one  of  the  school  inspec- 
tors and  held  office  for  one  year  only.  He  examined  teach- 
ers, granted  certificates,  and  was  directed  to  visit  all  the 
schools  in  the  township  at  least  twice  in  the  year.  Many 
of  the  provisions  of  the  county  superintendency  law  were 
retained,  the  township  officer  being  substituted  for  the 
county  officer.  The  examinations  were  nominally  the  same, 
the  certificates  were  essentially  of  the  same  grades,  and  the 
supervisory  duties  were  scarcely  changed. 

The  State  Superintendent  sent  out  a  circular  to  the  newly 
created  Superintendents,  carefully  explaining  the  provisions 
of  the  law  and  the  duties  which  it  imposed.  The  general 
fitness  of  these  officers  for  their  duties,  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  only  272  out  of  915  complied  with  the  request 
of  the  Superintendent  for  a  report  of  the  work  done  by  them 
during  the  first  period  of  their  service.  As  might  have  been 
anticipated,  in  most  of  the  counties,  the  character  of  the 
teachers  and  the  schools  suffered  severely  under  the  new 
system,  and  public  sentiment  soon  began  to  demand  a 
change  of  some  sort.  A  return  to  the  old  county  superin- 
tendency did  not  appear  desirable,  without  some  radical 
improvements  in  several  directions.     Experience  had  done 


COUNTY  BOARD  OF  EXAMINERS 


155 


some  wholesome  and  effective  teaching  to  both  the  advo- 
cates and  opponents  of  the  county  system.  A  new  law 
would  embody  the  results  of  the  lessons  learned.  It  was 
certain  at  least  that  a  board  of  examiners  would  be  substi- 


tuted for  a  single  examiner. 


COUNTY   EXAMINERS — TOWNSHIP   SUPERVISION. 

A  new  law,  enacted  in  1881,  attempted  to  combine  county 
examinations  with  township  supervision,  nearly  in  accord- 
ance with  a  plan  recommended  by  Superintendent  Gower 
in  his  report  for  1880.  "The  true  system  of  local  supervis- 
ion," he  said,  ''must  include  the  district  board,  the  town- 
ship inspectors,  the  county  officer,  or  officers,  and  the  State 
department,  inter-dependent,  mutually  responsible,  and 
working  with  perfect  harmony  and  mutual  respect."  The 
law  provided  for  a  county  board  of  three  examiners,  elected 
by  the  chairmen  of  the  boards  of  school  inspectors,  after 
the  first  election,  for  a  term  of  three  years.  This  county 
board  elected  one  of  its  members  as  Secretary,  who  was  the 
executive  officer  of  the  board.  This  board  examined  the 
teachers  of  the  county  and  gave  three  grades  of  certificates, 
the  first  grade  valid  for  three  years ;  the  second,  for  two 
years;  the  third,  for  one  year,  throughout  the  county.  A 
special  certificate,  valid  for  a  very  limited  time  in  a  specified 
district,  could  be  granted  by  the  Secretary.  The  Secretary 
was  required  to  visit  any  school  in  the  county  when  notified 
by  the  chairman  of  a  township  board  of  inspectors  that  such 
school  was  in  need  of  special  attention.  This  was  the 
extent  of  the  supervision  exercised  by  the  county  examiners. 

The  chairman  of  the  board  of  school  inspectors  was  made 
supervisor  of  the  schools  of  his  township  with  the  ordinary 


156  •  COUNTY  SUPERVISION 

duties  and  powers  pertaining  to  that  position.  Probably 
the  law  was  the  best  which  could  have  been  secured  at  that 
time,  while  the  prejudice  against  the  previous  county  super- 
intendency  system  was  still  strong  in  the  minds  of  many 
members  of  the  Legislature.  The  result,  however,  was 
what  might  have  been  anticipated ;  township  supervision 
proved  to  be  "a.  mere  farce  in  a  large  percentage  of  the 
townships  of  the  State,"  to  borrow  the  truthful  language  of 
one  of  the  county  secretaries. 

PROVISION    I^OR   COUNTY   SUPERVISION. 

In  1887  the  law  was  revised  and  amended,  the  product 
being  an  improved  but  complicated  and,  in  some  features, 
an  imdesirable  system.  Two  county  examiners  were  chosen, 
for  a  term  of  two  years,  by  the  chairmen  of  the  township 
boards  of  inspectors.  These  two,  with  the  judge  of  pro- 
bate, appointed  and  employed  a  Secretary,  for  the  term  of 
one  year,  who  became  ex-officio  a  member  of  the  county 
board  and  its  executive  officer.  The  Secretary  examined 
candidates  for  positions  as  teachers,  and  the  other  members 
of  the  board  acted  with  him  in  granting  certificates.  As 
before,  certificates  were  of  three  grades,  the  first  being  made 
valid  throughout  the  State.  Examination  questions  were 
to  be  furnished  by  the  Superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Under  the  previous  law,  "the  theory  and  art  of  teaching, 
history  of  the  United  States,  and  civil  government"  had 
been  added  to  the  studies  in  which  examination  must  be 
made.  By  the  present  act,  "physiology  and  hygiene  with 
particular  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stim- 
ulants, and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system,"  were  added. 
The   Secretary   was   required   to  visit   each   school   in   the 


COUNTY  COMMISSIONERS  157 

county  at  least  once  in  the  year,  and  to  perform  all  the 
usual  duties  of  a  supervising  officer.  The  chairman  of  the 
board  of  inspectors  still  continued  to  have  nominal  "Super- 
visory charge"  of  the  schools  of  his  township  subject  to 
the  advice  and  direction  of  the  Secretary.  In  counties  hav- 
ing more  schools  than  the  Secretary  could  visit  personally, 
he  was  authorized,  with  the  approval  of  the  other  members 
of  the  board,  to  employ  "assistant  visitors"  for  a  strictly 
limited  period  in  the  year.  This  law,  like  the  one  which 
it  superseded,  proved  unsatisfactory,  although  it  resulted, 
in  many  counties,  in  producing  considerable  improvement 
in  the  schools. 

COUNTY    COMMISSIONER   OF    SCHOOLS. 

In  the  year  1891  an  act  was  passed  providing  for  County 
Commissioners  of  schools  and  two  county  examiners.  These 
three  constituted  a  county  board  for  the  examination  of 
teachers.  The  commissioner  is  a  county  superintendent 
with  a  different  title,  and  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  super- 
vising the  schools  of  the  county,  with  authority,  within  cer- 
tain limits,  to  appoint  assistant  visitors  where  these  are 
needed.  This  law,  since  amended  in  several  particulars, 
especially  in  respect  to  the  qualifications  of  the  members 
of  the  board  and  the  length  of  the  term  of  office,  still  re- 
mains in  force ;  and  it  will  be  sufficient  to  give  a  brief  out- 
line of  its  provisions  at  this  time  (1901)  without  consider- 
ing in  detail  its  successive  amendments  and  improvements. 

The  county  commissioner  is  chosen  by  the  people  at  the 
election  on  the  first  Monday  in  April,  at  present  for  a  term 
of  two  years,  in  1903  and  thereafter,  for  four  years.  To  be 
eligible  to  the  office  of  commissioner  a  person  must  have 


158  SUMMARY  OF  PROVISIONS 

had  an  experience  of  twelve  months  as  a  teacher  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  State,  must  be  a  graduate  of  the  liter- 
ary department  of  some  reputable  college,  university,  or 
State  normal  school  having  a  course  of  at  ^east  three,  years, 
or  hold  a  State  teacher's  certificate,  or  be  the  holder  of  a 
first  grade  certificate;  but  this  last  certificate  only  qualifies 
the  holder  in  the  county  where  it  is  granted.  In  counties 
having  less  than  fifty  districts  a  second  grade  certificate 
qualifies. 

The  two  school  examiners  are  elected  by  the  county  board 
of  supervisors  for  a  term  of  two  years.  Any  person  is 
eligible  to  the  office  of  examiner  who  has  the  qualifications 
required  for  a  commissioner,  or  has  taught  in  the  public 
schools  nine  months  and  holds,  or  has  held  within  three 
years,  a  second  grade  certificate. 

Three  grades  of  certificates  are  granted,  subject  to  such 
rules  as  the  Superintendent  of  public  instruction  may  pre- 
scribe. The  first  grade  is  valid  for  four  years,  and  is  good 
throughout  the  State  when  endorsed  by  the  State  Superin- 
tendent, but  can  be  granted  only  to  persons  who  have  taught 
at  least  one  year  with  ability  and  success.  The  second 
grade  is  valid  throughout  the  county  for  three  years,  but 
can  be  granted  only  to  those  who  have  taught  at  least  seven 
months.  Certificates  of  the  third  grade  are  of  two  classes, 
known  as  A  and  B.  Certificates  of  class  A  entitle  the 
holder  to  teach  in  primary  departments  of  graded  schools 
only;  those  of  class  B  entitle  the  holder  to  teach  in  any 
school  in  the  county  for  one  year,  but  only  three  certifi- 
cates of  this  class  can  be  granted  to  the  same  person.  The 
commissioner  can  grant  a  special  certificate  entitling  a  per- 
son to  teach  in  a  specified  district  till  the  next  public  exam- 


EXTENT  OF  EXAMINATIONS 


159 


ination,  but  only  one  such  certificate  can  be  given  to  the 
same  person.  No  certificate  can  be  granted  to  a  person 
over  twenty-one  years  of  age  who  is  not  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States. 

The  studies  in  which  examinations  for  the  lowest  grade 
of  certificate  must  be  made  are  "orthography,  reading,  writ- 
ing, grammar,  geography,  arithmetic,  theory  and  art  of 
teaching,  United  States  history,  civil  government,  and  phys- 
iology and  hygiene  with  reference  to  the  effect  of  alcoholic 
drinks,  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system." 
Persons  receiving  certificates  must  have  attained  the  age 
of  eighteen  years  under  the  present  law.  Under  the  last 
previous  law  the  age  was  seventeen,  earlier  it  was  sixteen, 
and  eariier  still  no  age  Hmit  was  prescribed. 

All  questions  for  examination  are  prepared  and  furnished 
by  the  State  Superintendent:  and  that  officer  determines, 
usually  after  consultation  with  the  county  examiners,  in 
what  studies  candidates  for  second  and  first  grade  certifi- 
cates shall  be  examined. 

Certificates  may  be  renewed  without  examination  under 
certain  circumstances,  and  the  examiners  in  one  county 
may  accept  examination  papers  written  in  another  county 
and  treat  them  as  if  written  before  themselves.  An  appli- 
cant for  a  first  grade  certificate,  who  is  dissatisfied  with  the 
decision  of  the  county  examiners,  may  appeal  to  the  Super- 
•intendent  of  public  instruction. 

OTHER  AUTHORITIES  GRANTING  LEGAL  CERTIFICATES 

THE    STATE    BOARD    01?    EDUCATION. 

From  1867  to  1875  the  Superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion was  empowered  to  grant  certificates,  on  any  evidence 


i6o        CERTIFICATES  BY  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

satisfactory  to  him,  licensing  the  holders  to  teach  in  any 
of  the  primary  or  graded  schools  of  the  State,  the  certifi- 
cates being  valid  till  revoked  by  the  Superintendent. 
About  150  certificates  were  granted  under  this  law,  but  the 
very  indefinite  provisions  of  the  act  unavoidably  opened 
the  way  for  dissatisfaction  and  suspicion  of  favoritism.  It 
was,  however,  especially  during  the  period  of  the  township 
superintendency,  generally  felt  that  there  should  be  some 
State  officer,  or  officers,  authorized  to  make  examination 
and  grant  certificates.  This  feeling  led  to  the  enactment  of 
a  law  in  1879,  giving  the  State  Board  of  Education  power, 
after  *'a  thorough  and  critical  examination,"  to  grant  certi- 
ficates, valid  for  a  term  of  ten  years,  to  persons  found  to 
possess  eminent  scholarship  and  professional  ability"  and 
good  moral  character.  The  board  still  retains  this  author- 
ity, the  original  act  having  been  only  slightly  modified.  The 
certificates  now  granted  are  valid  for  life  unless  revoked 
by  the  Board.  No  certificate  can  be  granted  except  upon 
the  prescribed  examination.  The  Board  also  has  authority, 
in  its  discretion,  ''to  endorse  State  teachers'  certificates  or 
normal  school  diplomas  granted  in  other  States."  The 
Board  controls  the  granting  of  other  certificates  as  will  be 
noticed  later  on. 

NORMAI,  SCHOOI,  DIPLOMAS  AND  CERTIFICATES. 

The  act  establishing  the  normal  school  at  Ypsilanti  con- 
tained this  provision :  ''So  soon  as  any  person  has  attended 
said  institution  twenty-two  weeks,  said  person  may  be  ex- 
amined in  the  studies  required  by  the  Board,  in  such  manner 
as  may  be  prescribed,  and  if  it  appear  that  said  person  pos- 
sesses  the   learning   and   other   qualifications   necessary   to 


CERTIFICATES  FOR  TEACHERS  i6i 

teach  a  good  common  school,  said  person  shall  receive  a 
certificate  to  that  effect  from  the  Principal,  to  be  approved 
by  the  Superintendent  of  public  instruction."  It  seems 
probable  that  the  intention  of  this  clause  of  the  statute  was 
to  make  the  certificate  granted  a  legal  license  to  teach ;  but 
the  word  legal  was  not  used,  and  the  township  inspectors 
insisted  that  the  holders  of  such  certificates  should  submit 
to  an  examination  by  them.  In  accordance  with  a  recom- 
mendation of  the  State  Superintendent,  the  Legislature  in 
1857  passed  an  act  authorizing  the  board  of  instruction  of 
the  school  to  grant  to  graduates  a  diploma  which,  when 
signed  by  the  Board  of  Education,  would  be  evidence  of  the 
completion  of  the  course  of  study.  This  diploma  was  not 
itself  a  legal  certificate ;  but  was  to  be  accompanied  by  a 
certificate,  signed  by  the  board  of  instruction,  which  served 
as  a  legal  license  to  teach  in  any  of  the  primary  schools  of 
the  State  until  revoked  by  some  proper  authority.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  certificate  was  granted  by  the  Faculty 
of  the  school  and  not  by  the  Board  of  Education.  This 
continued  to  be  the  case  until  1889.  Since  that  date  the 
certificates  as  well  as  the  diplomas,  are  given  by  the  Board 
of  Education.  At  the  present  time  certificates  of  two  grades, 
good  throughout  the  State,  are  granted  at  the  college  at 
Ypsilanti  and  at  the  school  in  Marquette,  one  valid  for  five 
years,  the  other  for  life.  At  the  central  normal  at  Mt.  Pleas- 
ant certificates  of  two  grades  are  granted,  valid  for  a  limited 
period,  and  renewable  for  the  same  length  of  time.  Probab- 
ly the  certificates  from  this  school  will  be  made  uniform  with 
the  others  at  an  early  day. 


i62  FROM  COLLEGES  AND  THE  UNIVERSITY 

CERTri^ICATrCS  FROM  THE  COI.LKGDS. 

In  1893  a  legislative  act  was  passed  empowering  the 
Board  of  Education  to  grant  certificates,  without  examina- 
tion, to  graduates  of  such  colleges  of  the  State  as  should 
comply  with  certain  prescribed  conditions  in  respect  to 
courses  of  study  and  instruction.  If  the  graduates  have 
already  had  three  years  of  successful  experience  in  the 
schools  of  the  State,  the  certificate  is  valid  for  life.  Grad- 
uates without  previous  experience  receive  certificates  valid 
for  four  years.  At  the  expiration  of  that  time,  if  they  have 
taught  successfully,  they  may  receive  life  certificates. 

CERTIFICATES    FROM    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    MICHIGAN. 

In  1 89 1  authority  was  granted  by  the  Legislature,  to  the 
Faculty  of  the  department  of  Literature,  Science,  and  the 
Arts  of  the  University,  to  give  a  legal  certificate  of  qualifi- 
cation to  teach  in  any  of  the  schools  of  the  State,  "to  every 
person  receiving  a  bachelor's,  master's  or  doctor's  degree, 
and  also  a  teacher's  diploma  for  work  done  in  the  science 
and  art  of  teaching  from  said  University." 

CERTIFICATES   IN    SOME   CITIES. 

"In  incorporated  cities  employing  a  principal  of  the  high 
school  and  also  a  superintendent  of  schools,  who  gives  not 
less  than  one-half  of  his  time  to  school  supervision,  the 
superintendent  of  schools  and  the  Board  of  Education,  or 
a  committee  thereof,  shall  be  empowered  to  examine  their 
teachers  and  grant  certificates"  to  them  in  such  form  as 
the    Superintendent   of   public   instruction    shall   prescribe. 


KINDERGARTEN,  MUSIC,  DRAWING  163 

Cities  having  a  thoroughly  equipped  normal  training  school 
are  exempt  from  these  provisions  in  relation  to  the  examina- 
tion of  teachers.  Such  certificates  are  valid  only  in  the 
city  in  which  they  were  given. 

KINDF,RGARTKN     Tl^ACHI^RS,     AND    Tl^ACPIERS     O^     MUSIC    AND 

DRAWING. 

By  an  act  passed  in  1901,  "graduates  of  any  kindergarten 
training  school,  endorsed  by  the  Superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  who  hold,  also,  a  teacher's  certificate  or  diploma 
from  a  reputable  college  of  the  State,  or  a  high  school  hav- 
ing a  four  years'  high  school  course,  are  legally  qualified 
kindergarten  teachers." 

"Any  person  who  has  finished  a  course  of  at  least  two 
years  in  music  in  the  University  of  Michigan,  or  in  any  of 
the  State  normal  schools,'  or  in  any  college  incorporated 
under  the  general  laws  of  the  State,  and  any  person  who  has 
finished  a  course  of  at  least  one  year  in  drawing  in  any  of 
the  aforesaid  institutions,  or  in  any  other  institution,  whose 
course  of  study  is  acceptable  to  the  Superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  and  holds  in  either  case  a  statement  from  the 
proper  authorities  of  the  institution  certifying  to  that  fact, 
is  a  legally  qualified  teacher  in  music  or  in  drawing." 


CHAPTER  XIIL 
ABOUT  TEXT-BOOKS. 

The  first  school  law  of  the  State  gave  no  authority  to 
any  school  official  to  prescribe  the  books  which  might  be 
used  in  the  schools.  Parents  furnished  their  children  with 
such  books  as  they  happened  to  have  or  could  most  easily 
procure.  The  result  of  this  freedom  can  be  easily  under- 
stood. The  reports  of  Superintendent  Pierce  and  of  his 
immediate  successor,  Mr.  Sawyer,  showed  that  about  thirty 
different  books  were  in  use  for  reading  purposes.  At  the 
head  of  this  Hst  was  the  old  EngHsh  reader,  with  the  New 
Testament  as  second  and  the  Juvenile  reader  third.  Fif- 
teen works  on  arithmetic  were  rfamed,  with  Daboll,  Adams, 
and  Smith  in  the  lead.  Ten  geographies  appeared,  with 
Olney  as  first.  The  long  list  of  grammars  was  headed  by 
Kirkham.  Mr.  Sawyer,  in  commenting  upon  the  condition 
of  affairs,  said,  "If  a  general  uniformity  cannot  be  brought 
about,  it  is  suggested  whether  the  plan  in  some  States,  of 
authorizing  the  town  committees,  (or  inspectors  with  us) 
to  prescribe  the  books  to  be  used  in  their  own  limits,  might 
not  be  adopted."  The  early  State  reports  make  it  evident 
that  the  evil  of  a  multiplicit}-  of  text-books  is  a  very  old  one, 
and  that  it  has  not  been  easy  to  find  and  apply  an  efficient 
remedy. 

In  1839  the  Legislature  made  it  the  duty  of  the  State 
Superintendent  to  report,  "What  provision,  in  his  opinion, 
could  or  ought  to  be  made  by  law,  to  insure  a  regular  and 

164 


PLAN  TO  SECURE  UNIFORMITY  165 

sufficient  supply  of  text-books  to  every  school  district  on 
the  most  economical  terms,  or  what  other  provision,  if  any, 
should,  in  his  opinion,  be  made  to  secure  uniformity,  as  near 
as  may  be,  in  the  books  to  be  used  in  primary  schools." 

This  act  was  probably  passed  in  consequence  of  a  peti- 
tion praying  the  Legislature  "to  provide  by  law  for  a 
better  supply,  as  well  as  a  greater  uniformity,  of  school 
books."  The  plan  proposed  by  the  petitioners  is  histori- 
cally interesting,  as  foreshadowing  some  of  more  recent 
date.  The  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was  to  be 
authorized  and  directed  to  purchase  annually,  at  his  dis- 
cretion, legally  approved  books  and  stationery  equal  to  the 
probable  wants  of  the  schools  and  the  district  libraries,  and 
establish  a  central  depository  from  which  distribution  should 
be  made  to  the  treasurer  of  each  county,  who  should  be  the 
keeper  of  a  depository  for  the  county.  The  county  treas- 
urer was  to  appoint  some  person  in  each  township  to  keep 
a  township  depository  of  school  books.  Books  were  to  be 
sold  to  residents  of  Michigan  at  uniform  prices  fixed  by 
the  Superintendent.  The  Superintendent  was  to  use  such 
portion  of  the  principal  of  the  primary  school  fund  as  might 
be  necessary  to  put  the  plan  into  operation. 

Mr.  Pierce  did  not  explicitly  recommend  this  or  any 
other  plan,  but  simply  said  in  his  report :  "Could  some  plan 
of  this  nature  be  put  into  successful  operation,  it  would 
doubtless  contribute  to  the  public  advantage.  As  it  now 
is,  the  districts,  in  most  cases,  are  obliged  to  rely  upon  the 
merchants  for  supply.  This  supply  is  often  irregular — 
many  of  the  books  purchased  are  of  the  most  inferior  de- 
scription— and  frequently  sold  at  high  prices — some  pur- 
chase one  kind,  some  another ;  and  this  introduces  confusion 


i66  RECOMMENDED  BY  SUPERINTENDENT  ' 

of  books  into  many  of  our  schools.  But  whether  any  sys- 
tem like  that  proposed  can  be  safely  attempted,  is  for  the 
Legislature  in  its  wisdom  to  determine."  Evidently  the 
Superintendent  had  little  faith  in  the  practicability  of  the 
scheme,  and  the  Legislature  appears  to  have  given  it  no 
serious  consideration. 

One  of  the  first  legislative  acts,  looking  towards  a  pos- 
sible uniformity  of  text-books,  was  a  provision  of  law  mak- 
ing it  the  duty  of  the  State  Superintendent  to  prepare  and 
recommend  lists  of  books  suitable  for  use  in  the  schools, 
and  also  for  district  libraries.  The  schools,  however,  were 
not  required  to  use  these  books,  and  the  recommendations 
produced  apparently  no  appreciable  efifect.  The  lists 
were  appended  to  the  annual  reports  in  some  years,  and 
were  also  appended,  for  some  time,  to  the  successive  editions 
of  the  school  laws. 

One  of  the  most  extended  and  carefully  prepared  lists 
was  published  in  1858  by  Superintendent  May  hew.  In  his 
explanatory  introduction  to  this  list,  he  states  that  it  had 
been  made  up  after  consultation  with  many  competent  teach- 
ers, and  that  no  books  were  included  which  had  not  re- 
ceived their  cordial  approval.  After  adverting  to  the  evils 
springing  from  a  lack  of  uniformity,  he  went  on  to  say : 
"It  is  not  necessary  to  the  removal  of  the  difficulty,  that  the 
same  series  of  books  should  be  used  throughout  the  State. 
This  indeed  would  be  impracticable,  if  desirable.  It  might 
be  well,  however,  for  all  the  schools  of  a  township  to  use 
a  uniform  series  of  books ;  and  especially  is  it  essential  that 
a  uniform  series  be  used  in  every  school  district."  For  the 
purpose  of  securing  uniformity,  he  recommended  that  the- 
County  educational  society,  where  such  a  society  existed, 


AUTHORITY  GRANTED  TO  SCHOOL  BOARDS  167 

should,  through  a  judicious  committee,  select  and  recom- 
mend a  series  of  books  for  use  in  the  schools  of  the  county. 
If  there  were  no  county  society,  the  work  might  be  done  for 
a  township  by  the  township  society.  If  this  was  not  practi- 
cable, he  advised  that  uniformity  be  attempted  by  the  united 
action  of  the  several  districts  in  a  township,  or  of  a  number 
of  contiguous  districts,  through  committees.  This  plan 
proved  of  no  practical  value,  but  is  of  historical  interest  as 
showing  one  of  the  many  methods  suggested  for  securing 
uniformity,  and  solving  a  most  difficult  problem  by  volun- 
tary action,  without  the  peremptory  mandate  of  law.  The 
revised  act  of  1857  ^^r  the  organization  and  management  of 
graded  schools  empowered  the  trustees  of  such  districts  to 
prescribe  courses  of  studies  and  text-books.  This  was  gen- 
erally done  in  the  larger  schools.  An  amendment  to  the 
general  school  law,  made  about  the  same  time,  authorized 
and  directed  the  district  boards  "to  prescribe  a  uniform  list 
of  text-books  to  be  used  in  their  schools."  No  specific  pen- 
alty was  attached  to  a  failure  to  comply  with  this  provision 
of  the  law,  and  it  remained  practically  a  dead  letter  in  most 
districts,  the  board  being  indisposed  to  disturb  the  good 
feeling  of  the  neighborhood  by  requiring  a  change  of  text- 
books in  order  to  secure  uniformity. 

Attached  to  an  edition  of  the  school  law,  issued  in  1859, 
was  a  list  of  text-books,  prepared  with  much  care  by  Super- 
intendent Gregory.  In  some  introductory  remarks  he  said : 
*'The  use  of  the  books  recommended  by  the  superintendent 
is  not  obligatory  upon  the  district,  the  right  to  prescribe 
authoritatively  the  text-books  being  vested  in  the  district 
board."  A  few  of  the  books  on  the  list  are  named  here 
to  recall  some  of  the  popular  text-books  of  sixty  years  ago. 


l68     SOME  OF  THE  POPULAR  TEXT-BOOKS 

Daboll,  Kirkham,  Olney,  and  the  English  reader  had  disap- 
peared. In  their  places  were  recommended  Stoddard's, 
Davies'  and  Colbiirn's  arithmetics ;  Welch's,  Sill's  and 
Green's  grammars ;  Cornell's,  Montieth's  and  McNally's, 
and  Warren's  geographies ;  Webb's  and  Sander's  readers ; 
and  Willson's  and  Goodrich's  histories.  Town  and  Hol- 
brook's  speller  was  the  favorite. 

Ten  years  later,  after  the  county  superintendency  had 
been  established.  Superintendent  Hosford  wrote :  "The 
great  diversity  of  text-books  still  exist,  and  the  evil  is  as 
strongly  felt  as  in  past  years.  Many  of  the  superintendents 
have  endeavored  to  secure  uniformity  in  their  respective 
counties.  The  effort  has  not  been  entirely  unavailing." 
He  regarded  the  positive  and  diverse  opinions  and  prefer- 
ences of  teachers  as  one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  securing  uniformity.  Individual  preference,  he  de- 
clared, should  be  disregarded.  In  his  report  for  1877,  Su- 
perintendent Tarbell  published  an  extended  table  showing 
the  text-books  used  in  the  different  departments  of  the  grad- 
ed schools,  and  also  showing  the  condition  of  affairs  in  the 
rural  schools  by  extracts  from  the  reports  of  the  township 
Superintendents,  the  township  system  of  supervision  having 
been  reestablished.  It  was  almost  universally  agreed  that 
the  diversity  of  text-books  was  one  of  the  most  serious  hin- 
drances to  progress  in  the  schools.  Mr.  Tarbell  discussed 
somewhat  fully  the  causes  of  the  existing  conditions  in  the 
country  schools,  and  asked,  "What  shall  be  done  about  it?" 
He  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  law  was  precisely 
the  same,  in  this  matter,  for  the  graded  and  the  ungraded 
schools,  and  yet  the  graded  schools  generally  had  uniformity 
while  the  ungraded  did  not.     His  explanation  of  this  was 


MR.  TARBELL'S  VIEWS  ON  UNIFORMITY         169 

very  simple,  brief,  and  correct.  He  said:  "The  graded 
school  boards  dare,  and  the  district  school  boards  dare  not 
comply  with  the  law.  In  the  latter  case  the  board  being  but 
few  in  numbers,  being  the  neighbors,  and  desirous  of  being 
the  friends  of  those  affected  by  their  action,  they  shrink  from 
doing  their  duty  as  officers,  lest  it  should  affect  their  rela- 
tions as  men;  for  some,  perhaps  most,  will  almost  inevitably 
be  displeased  at  their  action."  But,  to  prevent  woful  waste 
of  money  and  effort,  some  uniformity  must  be  had.  What 
shall  it  be?  State,  county,  township,  district?"  A  State 
system  of  uniformity,  he  declared,  was  a  most  dazzling 
scheme.  A  national  uniformity  would  be  more  brilliant 
still. 

In  respect  to  a  State  system  of  uniformity  Mr.  Tarbell 
said:  "Its  difficulties  lie  in  the  centralization  of  undue 
power  in  the  hands  of  a  few,  the  great  liability  to  bribery 
and  the  certain  charges  of  it,  the  extent  of  change  inevita- 
ble, its  inequality,  some  books  being  selected  which  are  ex- 
tensively used  in  certain  parts  of  the  State  and  very  little 
elsewhere,  the  difficulty  of  selecting  books  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  all.  As  Superintendent  of  public  instruction  I 
should  not  wish  a  committee  to  select  books  for  the  State 
to  be  constituted  without  including  myself,  nor  should  I 
dare  for  the  sake  of  my  good  name  to  act  on  such  a  com- 
mittee." 

"County  uniformity  presents  these  difficulties  to  a  less 
extent  than  State  uniformity,  but  by  no  means  escapes  them. 
The  experience  of  other  States  is  by  no  means  assuring  to 
the  advocates  of  county  uniformity.  The  extent  of  the 
moneyed  interests  involved  lead  to  bitter  strife,  and  after  all 
to  a  plentiful  lack  of  the  uniformity  sought.     Berrien  county 


I70  FREE  TEXT-BOOKS  RECOMMENDED 

tried  county  uniformity  two  years  with  results  well  known." 
He  favored  township  uniformity,  as  on  the  whole  the 
most  practicable,  and  open  to  the  fewest  objections  and  dan- 
gers, and  suggested  a  plan  for  securing  this ;  but  made  the 
following  recommendation  to  bring  about  district  uniform- 
ity, and  at  the  same  time  reduce  the  cost  of  books : 

**The  plan  of  'free  text-books'  is  the  best  solution  of  the 
difficulty  arising  from  expensiveness  of  school  books  with 
which  I  am  conversant.  I  recommend  the  passage  of  a  law 
allowing  the  tax-paying  voters  of  each  district  to  determine, 
at  the  annual  meeting,  whether  the  district  board  shall  fur- 
nish school  books  at  the  expense  of  the  district  to  all  pupils 
in  attendance  at  the  school  during  the  coming  year,  the  books 
to  be  the  property  of  the  district  and  loaned  to  the  pupils 
under  suitable  restrictions."  He  stated  that  several  States 
had  a  law  of  this  kind  which  was  reported  to  give  general 
satisfaction.  No  immediate  results  followed  from  Mr.  Tar- 
bell's  arguments  and  recommendations. 

In  the  report  of  1883  Superintendent  Gass  treated  the 
same  subject  quite  extensively,  presenting  the  conclusions 
reached  by  experiments  in  several  other  States  in  respect 
to  State  uniformity.  The  consensus  of  opinion  was  adverse 
to  such  uniformity  for  what  appeared  to  be  cogent  reasons. 
The  conclusion  of  Mr.  Gass  was  that  township  uniformity 
was  the  most  feasible  and  most  likely  to  prove  satisfactory 
and  successful.  He  strongly  favored,  however,  the  passage 
of  a  law  allowing  districts  to  furnish  text-books  free.  A 
table  included  in  his  report  showed  the  names  and  number 
of  different  text-books  in  orthography,  reading,  arithmetic, 
grammar,  geography,  and  history  of  the  United  States  used 
in  nine  counties  in  the  State.     The  books  in  orthography 


INSTRUCTION  IN  PHYSIOLOGICAL  HYGIENE     171 

were  nine ;  in  reading,  fifteen ;  in  arithmetic,  five ;  in  gram- 
mar, nine ;  in  geography,  seven  ;  and  in  history,  eight,  Har- 
rington's orthography.  Harper's  readers.  Harper's  and  Rob- 
inson's arithmetics,  Swinton's  grammar.  Harper's  geog- 
raphy, and  Scott's  history  were  more  extensively  used  than 
any  others.  The  table  made  evident  the  fruitful  industry 
of  the  ''book  agent." 

In  1883  an  amendment  was  made  to  the  school  law,  pro- 
viding for  the  instruction  of  "all  pupils  in  every  school  in 
physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  efifects 
of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  generally,  upon 
the  human  system."  This  provision  was  amended  in  1887 
so  as  to  require  ''such  instruction  to  be  given  by  the  aid 
of  text-books  in  the  case  of  pupils  who  are  able  to  read,  and 
as  thoroughly  as  in  other  studies  pursued  in  the  same  school. 
The  text-books  to  be  used  for  such  instruction  shall  give  at 
least  one-fourth  of  their  space  to  the  consideration  of  the 
nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and 
the  books  used  in  the  highest  grade  of  graded  schools  shall 
contain  at  least  twenty  pages  of  matter  relating  to  this  sub- 
ject." 

Text-books  upon  this  subject  must  be  examined  and  ap- 
proved by  the  State  board  of  education  before  school  offi- 
cers can  introduce  them  into  the  schools,  and  only  books  so 
approved  can  be  lawfully  introduced  and  used.  At  first  the 
State  board  of  health  was  required  to  join  with  the  board 
of  education  in  the  examination  and  approval,  but  this  re- 
quirement was  omitted  in  the  later  editions  of  the  school 
laws. 

At  a  meeting  in  1884  the  county  examiners  devised  and 
discussed  a  somewhat  elaborate  plan  for  securing  voluntary 


172  LAW  FOR  FREE  TEXT-BOOKS 

county  uniformity,  and  voted  to  urge  the  Legislature  to 
provide  for  such  uniformity  by  law. 

By  a  special  act  of  the  Legislature,  passed  in  1885,  the 
board  of  education  of  East  Saginaw  was  given  authority  to 
purchase  text-books  and  all  necessary  supplies  for  all  pupils 
attending  the  public  schools  in  that  city.  A  report  of  the 
city  Superintendent  a  year  and  a  half  after  the  law  went 
into  effect,  spoke  very  favorably  of  the  result  of  the  experi- 
ment, which  was  the  first  made  in  the  State. 

The  influence  of  the  Saginaw  experiment  and  the  pres- 
sure from  various  quarters,  induced  the  Legislature,  in  1889, 
to  enact  a  law  permitting  any  school  district  to  provide  free 
text-books  for  its  school,  and  requiring  the  voters  of  every 
district,  except  those  organized  under  special  charters,  to 
vote  upon  the  question  at  the  first  annual  meeting  after  the 
passage  of  the  law.  It  is  not  necessary  here  to  note  the  de- 
tailed provisions  of  this  act. 

At  the  first  annual  meeting  a  considerable  number  of  dis- 
tricts voted  for  free  text-books,  more  in  the  newer  than  in 
the  older  counties,  but  in  many  districts  the  school  officers 
failed  to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  the  law  and  no  vote 
was  taken.  While  districts  organized  under  special  charters 
are  exempt  from  the  provisions  of  this  general  law,  they  may 
act  under  it  if  a  majority  of  the  voters  decide  to  do  so. 

Books  may  be  furnished  free  in  the  following  subjects: 
Orthography,  spelling,  writing,  reading,  geography,  arith- 
metic, grammar  (including  language  lessons),  National  and 
State  history,  civil  government,  and  physiology  and  hygiene. 
Books  once  adopted  cannot  be  changed  within  five  years,  and 
all  books  upon  any  one  subject  must  be  uniform.  The  vexed 
question  of  uniformity  is  thus  settled  in  all  districts  having 


PROVISION   FOR   FREE   TEXT-BOOKS  173 

free  text-books.  The  effect  of  this  free  text-book  act  is 
stated  as  follows  by  Superintendent  Hammond  in  his  report 
for  1898 :     "Up  to  the  close  of  the  public  schools,  June  30, 

1898,  359  common  districts  including  villages,  46  entire 
townships  under  the  township  unit  system,  and  7  cities  had 
taken  advantage  of  the  provisions  of  the  law  and  were  sup- 
plying text-books  free  to  pupils.  These  numbers  seem 
small  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  law  has  been  in  effect 
eight  years,  and  that  there  are  in  Michigan  7,262  school  dis- 
tricts, including  in  township  unit  districts  and  "jy  cities." 

In  the  report,  from  which  the  above  is  quoted,  Mr.  Ham- 
mond presented  an  extended  and  thorough  discussion  of 
"Text-book  Legislation,"  which  was  also  issued  and  circu- 
lated in  pamphlet  form.  The  reader  who  desires  to  become 
more  fully  acquainted  with  the  subject,  is  referred  to  this 
document. 

An  act  to  establish  a  State  uniformity  of  text-books  was 
passed  by  the  Legislature  in  1897.  '^^'^i^  statute  was  extend- 
ed and  elaborate,  but  was  not  to  go  into  effect  until  the  year 

1899.  Public  sentiment  against  this  law  became  so  mani- 
fest and  vigorous  that  it  was  repealed  at  the  next  session  of 
the  Legislature,  before  it  went  fully  into  effect ;  and  the 
previous  act  for  free  and  uniform  text-books,  by  voluntary 
district  action,  remains  in  force. 

The  general  result  under  the  law  thus  far,  summed  up 
by  Superintendent  Hammond,  in  the  report  of  1900,  is  as 
follows :  "The  free  text-book  plan  has  been  thoroughly  tried 
in  Michigan,  and  under  the  law  of  1889,  3^  P^^  cent  of  all 
the  pupils  enrolled  in  our  public  schools  are  furnished  with 
text-books  free.  Fifteen  of  our  largest  cities  furnish  free 
text-books  to  all  of  the  first  eight  grades,  and  the  City  of 


174  PROVISION  FOR  FREE  TEXT-BOOKS 

Muskegon  furnish  them  to  the  sixth  grade  inclusive.  Many 
country  schools  also  furnish  them.  Wexford  county  has 
40  free  text-book  districts ;  Missaukee,  38 ;  Saginaw,  37 ; 
Bay,  25 ;  Menominee,  24 ;  Osceola,  23,  Kalkaska,  22.  In 
the  entire  State  there  are  671  districts,  in  which  were  en- 
rolled last  year  56,779  children.  More  than  double  that 
number,  or  134,616,  are  supplied  with  text-books  in  the  16 
free  text-book  cities  in  the  State.  This  law  should  be 
amended  so  that  the  question  of  furnishing  free  text-books 
may  be  raised  by  a  tax-payer  at  any  annual  meeting.  It 
should  also  be  recast,  and  some  bungling  and  ambiguous 
sentences  corrected  or  removed.  With  these  slight  changes, 
our  laws  are  good  enough  and  should  not  be  disturbed  by 
the  Legislature." 

Text-book  conditions  in  the  State  at  present  may  be 
summarized  as  follows : 

1.  The  district  boards  of  the  common  districts,  the  trus- 
tees of  graded  districts,  and  the  school  boards  of  cities,  pre- 
scribe the  studies  to  be  pursued  in  their  schools  and  the 
text-books  to  be  used.  But  they  are  required  to  make  pro- 
visions for  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene  with  refer- 
ence to  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics,  and  to  use  in 
this  study  books  approved  by  the  State  board  of  education. 
These  provisions,  when  carried  out,  secure  district  uni- 
formity. 

2.  District  boards  may  supply,  at  the  expense  of  the  dis- 
trict, text-books  for  children  whose  parents  are  unable  to 
furnish  such  books. 

3.  All  school  districts  and  cities  may  furnish  free  text- 
books for  their  schools  in  the  subjects  named  in  a  previous 
paragraph. 


LESSONS  FROM  EXPERIMENTATION  175 

4.  Text-books  once  adopted  under  the  free  text-book  act, 
can  not  be  changed  within  five  years.  Text-books  adopted 
under  the  general  school  law  cannot  be  changed  within  five 
years,  except  by  vote  of  the  district,  permitting  or  ordering 
the  change. 

The  history  of  text-book  discussions,  legislation  and  ex- 
perimentation, affords  an  interesting  but  unfortunate  illus- 
tration of  the  ever-recurring  struggle  between  extreme  indi- 
vidualism on  the  one  hand  and  centralization,  more  or  less 
extreme,  upon  the  other.  With  us  the  school  district  repre- 
sents the  individual ;  the  State,  centralized  authority.  How- 
ever one's  judgment  decides,  one's  sympathy  goes  out  to 
the  individual.  A  judicious  compromise  is  usually  the  wis- 
est and  most  permanent  settlement. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
THE  LIBRARY  SYSTEM. 

The  first  constitution  of  the  State  made  it  the  duty  of  the 
Legislature,  "as  soon  as  the  circumstances  of  the  State  will 
permit"  to  provide  for  the  establishment  of  libraries,  one  at 
least  in  each  township ;  and  directed  that  money  paid  for 
exemption  from  military  duty,  and  the  proceeds  of  fines 
assessed  for  any  breach  of  the  penal  laws,  should  be  applied 
exclusively  to  the  support  of  such  libraries.  The  constitu- 
tion of  1850  contained  a  provision  essentially  the  same.  A 
subsequent  amendment  allowed  the  proceeds  from  fines  to 
be  used  for  other  school  purposes  if  the  township  board 
or  the  school  board  of  a  city  should  so  direct.  Superintend- 
ent Pierce  recommended  the  establishment  of  a  library  in 
each  district  rather  than  a  single  central  township  library. 
'*No  means,"  he  said,  "next  to  the  establishment  of  schools, 
can  be  more  admirably  adapted  to  the  intellectual  and  moral 
culture,  the  improvement  and  progress  of  the  people  in 
knowledge,  than  the  founding  of  well-selected  libraries."  The 
original  school  law  permitted  school  districts  to  impose  a 
tax  for  the  purchase  of  a  library  case,  and  an  annual  tax 
of  ten  dollars  for  the  purchase  of  books.  The  books  might 
be  selected  by  vote  of  a  district  or  by  the  district  board. 
No  provisions  were  made  for  township  libraries. 

The  establishment  of  libraries  went  on  very  slowly.  Su- 
perintendent Sawyer  stated,  in  his  report  for  1841,  that  only 
$170.80  had  been  raised  for  library  purposes  during  that 

176 


SLOW   GROWTH   OF   LIBRARIES  177 

year,  and  that  nothing  had  been  received  from  fines  or  for 
exemptions  from  military  duty.  He  insisted  upon  the  vast 
importance  of  judiciously  selected  libraries  as  a  means  of 
advancing  common  school  education,  and  called  attention  to 
some  valuable  works  recently  published  with  special  refer- 
ence to  school  libraries.  In  obedience  to  the  requirements  of 
the  statute,  Mr.  Sawyer  published,  in  the  report  of  1842,  rules 
and  regulations  for  the  management  of  district  libraries. 
Superintendent  Comstock,  who  succeeded  Mr.  Sawyer  in 
1843,  published  an  extended  list  of  books  for  use  in  the 
schools,  and  also  for  the  libraries.  The  number  of  volumes 
in  the  libraries  in  1850  was  reported  to  be  84,823. 

Some  minor  changes  were  made  from  time  to  time  in  the 
law  relating  to  libraries.  Township  libraries  were  author- 
ized, and  practically,  in  most  townships,  only  one  library 
was  maintained  until  1859,  the  books  of  which  were  to  be 
distributed,  once  in  three  months,  to  the  various  districts  in 
the  township.  Some  district  libraries  existed  in  addition  to 
the  central  library.  The  funds  for  the  support  of  the  librar- 
ies in  1850  were  the  proceeds  of  fines  and  of  exemption  from 
military  duty,  and  twenty-five  dollars  of  the  mill  tax  in  each 
township. 

The  township  plan  had  thus  far  proved  so  unsatisfactory 
and  of  so  little  real  value  generally  that  in  1859  an  act  was 
passed  authorizing  the  voters  of  a  township,  at  the  annual 
meeting,  to  determine  whether  the  township  library  should 
be  continued  or  district  libraries  should  be  allowed  in  its 
place.  If  the  vote  was  in  favor  of  district  libraries,  the 
township  inspectors  were  to  divide  the  books  in  the  town- 
ship library  among  the  several  districts  in  the  township  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  children  of  school  ages.     The 


178  CONDITION  OF  THE  LIBRARIES 

district  board  was  to  provide  for  the  care  of  the  Hbrary,  and 
Hbrary  moneys  belonging  to  the  township  were  to  be  appor- 
tioned to  the  districts  and  used  for  the  purchase  of  books. 
A  majority  of  the  township  decided  i-n  favor  of  district  librar- 
ies and  the  books  were  divided.  In  most  townships  the  dis- 
tricts received  a  mere  handful  of  books,  which,  in  not  a  few 
cases,  were  soon  scattered  and  lost.  For  the  support  of 
libraries  the  electors  of  the  township,  at  the  annual  meeting, 
could  vote  such  part  of  the  mill  tax  as  they  pleased.  In 
townships  having  district  libraries,  the  amount  so  voted  was 
apportioned  to  the  several  districts,  the  districts  themselves 
having  no  authority  at  that  time  to  vote  a  tax  for  library 
purposes.  Generally  very  little  money  was  appropriated  for 
the  purchase  of  books,  and  the  district  system  shared  the 
fate  of  the  township  system.  State  Superintendent  John 
M.  Gregory,  who  was  himself  a  strong  advocate  of  district 
rather  than  township  libraries,  said,  in  his  report  of  i860: 
"It  is  evident  that  our  library  system  must  soon  go  to  decay 
and  final  extinguishment  if  left  to  so  uncertain  and  precarious 
a  support."  Only  133  townships  had  made  any  appropria- 
tion from  the  mill  tax  for  libraries ;  and  in  many  cases,  when 
something  was  voted,  the  amount  was  so  small  as  to  be 
"farcical."  Township  libraries  were  reported  in  178  town- 
ships with  an  average  of  323  volumes  in  each  library.  The 
number  of  district  libraries  reported  was  2,287,  with  an 
average  of  48  volumes  in  each.  The  whole  number  of  vol- 
umes reported,  in  all  the  libraries,  was  154,514,  and  the  total 
resources  from  fines,  taxes,  etc.,  for  the  support  of  libraries 
was  only  $6,375.77.  ^^-  Gregory  recommended  that  at 
least  one-tenth  of  the  income  of  the  mill  tax  be  set  apart,  by 
Legislative  enactment,  for  the  libraries,  and  that  each  dis- 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  LIBRARIES  179 

trict  be  allowed  to  vote  an  additional  sum,  after  providing 
for  at  least  three  months  of  free  school.  These  recommen- 
dations did  not  produce  any  immediate  effect. 

Complaints  in  relation  to  the  character  of  many  of  the 
books  purchased  for  the  libraries  induced  the  Legislature 
of  1859  to  enact  that  the  State  board  of  education  should 
make  a  list  of  books,  unsectarian  in  character,  suitable  for 
district  and  township  libraries,  and  contract  with  the  lowest 
responsible  bidder  to  furnish  these  books,  at  a  stipulated 
price,  to  the  towmships  and  districts  ordering  them.  The 
district  boards,  or  township  boards  of  inspectors,  were  re- 
quired fo  purchase  books  from  this  list,  unless  the  voters  of 
the  districts  or  townships  ordered  otherwise.  No  penalty, 
however,  was  provided  for  failure  to  comply  with  this  law 
on  the  part  of  districts  or  townships.  For  several  years  the 
board  of  education  revised  and  published,  annually  or  bien- 
nially, such  a  list ;  but  so  few  books  were  purchased  from 
it  that,  after  a  little  time,  no  responsible  bookseller  would 
enter  into  a  contract  to  furnish  the  books  at  reduced  prices, 
and  consequently  the  plan  was  abandoned. 

Superintendent  Gregory  labored  very  zealously  and  per- 
sistently to  secure  the  establishment  of  libraries,  and  to  in- 
duce the  Legislature  to  make  adequate  provision  for  their 
support,  but  his  efforts  were  only  partially  successful  at 
best.  In  1861  he  wrote,  in  his  report:  "It  cannot  be  con- 
cealed that  no  very  general  popular  interest  is  felt  in  these 
libraries."  Out  of  658  townships  making  reports,  only  85 
voted  any  appropriation  from  the  mill  tax,  and  the  aggregate 
voted  was  only  $3,058.04.  In  the  report  for  that  year  he 
presented  brief  but  most  cogent  reasons  for  urging  the  sup- 
port of  district  libraries.     He  insisted  that  the  school  with- 


l8o  SOME   IMPROVEMENT 

out  the  library  was  incomplete.  ''The  school  teaches  to 
read ;  the  library  furnishes  the  books  for  reading.  The 
school  teaches  to  think;  the  library  furnishes  the  food  for 
thought.  The  school  awakens  the  mind  to  an  active  desire 
for  knowledge ;  the  library  is  the  open  store-house  of  knowl- 
edge. The  school  aims  to  awaken  a  taste  for  literary  pleas- 
ure ;  the  library  is  the  only  means  by  which  this  taste  can  be 
gratified." 

In  1870  Superintendent  Hosford,  with  characteristic  cau- 
tion wrote :  "On  the  whole,  the  library  statistics  afford 
ground  for  some  encouragement."  The  amount  voted  for 
libraries,  at  the  township  meetings  that  year,  was  $2,383.83, 
and  the  total  amount  paid  for  books,  was  $16,770.88.  There 
were  reported  1,366  district  and  201  township  libraries,  with 
an  aggregate  of  150,826  volumes.  In  that  year  the  school 
law  was  amended  so  as  to  allow  districts  to  vote  a  tax  for 
the  support  of  libraries.  It  required  continued  effort  for 
ten  years  to  secure  this  amendment.  While  it  was  not  the 
most  desirable  improvement,  it  was  the  best  then  attainable. 

A  decade  later,  1880,  Superintendent  Gower  wrote :  "The 
district  libraries  are  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  practically 
abandoned.  I  am  convinced  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
maintain  district  libraries  in  any  other  than  graded  districts. 
The  country  library,  to  be  of  any  value,  must  be  a  township 
library."  "Of  the  1,035  townships  of  the  State,  334  report 
township  libraries,  while  the  remainder,  701,  attempt  to 
maintain  district  libraries.  But  there  are  only  1,268  district 
libraries  in  these  701  townships,  on  an  average  less  than  two 
district  libraries  to  each  township  *  *  *  *  3q  f^j.  ^g  j 
know  all  the  townships  that  have  a  township  library  main- 
tain it  with  a  fair  degree  of  success,  while  less  than  one-third 


EXPENDITURES  FOR  LIBRARIES  i8i 

of  the  districts  acting  independently,  have  any  library  what- 
ever." The  total  amount  expended  for  library  books  during 
the  year  was  $35,544.20,  and  the  aggregate  number  of  vol- 
umes in  both  the  township  and  district  libraries  was  156,092. 

In  the  same  year,  the  number  of  volumes  reported  in  city 
school  district  libraries  was  105,901 ;  and  the  amount  paid 
for  the  support  of  these  libraries  was  $18,848.87,  of  which 
$6,246.60  was  raised  by  taxes  voted  by  the  districts. 

In  the  year  1890  the  report  showed  a  fair  increase  in  li- 
brary facilities  in  graded  districts,  and  some  increase  in  the 
townships.  The  statistics  gave  498  township  libraries ;  li- 
braries in  districts  with  less  than  a  hundred  children,  762 ; 
libraries  in  graded  and  city  districts  337 ;  whole  number  of 
libraries  1,597.  ^^^^^  money  voted  for  township  libraries 
was  $3,446.49,  and  the  whole  amount  expended  for  such 
libraries  was  $17,033.69.  The  amount  paid  for  district  li- 
braries, including  cities,  was  $70,310.42,  making  a  total  of 
$87,344.11.  The  number  of  volumes  reported  in  all  the 
libraries  was  505,720.  The  statistics  for  1900  show  a  fair- 
ly satisfactory  increase  in  the  resources  of  the  libraries,  and 
in  the  number  of  books  added  during  the  preceding  decade. 
The  number  of  township  libraries  had  decreased,  but  there 
had  been  a  large  increase  in  the  number  of  other  public 
libraries.  The  township  libraries  reported  were  426 ;  dis- 
trict and  city  libraries  3,658 ;  total,  4,084.  Volumes  in  town- 
ship libraries  157,177;  in  the  other  libraries  809,590;  total 
volumes  966,767.  The  amount  paid  for  support  of  town- 
ship libraries  was  $9,913.55;  for  district  and  city  libraries, 
$94,466.17;  total,  $104,374.72. 

The  following  are  the  present  provisions  of  law  in  relation 
to  township  and  district  libraries: 


i82         PRESENT  PROVISIONS  AS  TO  LIBRARIES 

1 .  At  least  one  library  must  he  maintained  in  each  organ- 
ized township. 

2.  All  residents  of  the  township,  not  residing  within  the 
boundaries  of  a  school  district  having  a  district  library,  are 
entitled  to  the  privileges  of  the  township  library. 

3.  The  township  board  of  school  inspectors  have  charge 
of  the  library,  purchase  books,  make  rules  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  library,  appoint  a  librarian,  determine  where  the 
library  shall  be  kept,  and  provide  all  necessary  appendages 
and  conveniences. 

4.  Any  district  may  establish  a  district  library  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  at  an  annual  meeting.  In  this  case  the  district 
is  entitled  to  its  just  proportion  of  the  books  in  the  township 
library,  and  to  its  equitable  share  of  township  library 
moneys. 

5.  The  district  school  board  has  charge  of  the  district 
library,  with  the  same  powers  and  duties  as  the  township 
board  of  inspectors. 

6.  For  the  support  of  libraries  there  are : 

(a).  The  clear  proceeds  of  all  fines  for  any  breach  of  the 
penal  laws  of  the  State  and  for  penalties,  or  upon  any  recog- 
nizance in  criminal  proceedings,  and  all  equivalents  for  ex- 
emption from  military  duty. 

(b).  Taxes  voted  by  any  township  at  the  annual  meeting 
for  the  support  of  the  township  library,  taxes  voted  by  any 
district,  at  its  annual  meeting,  for  the  support  of  the  district 
library.  The  law,  at  this  time,  leaves  the  amount  of  the 
tax  to  be  determined  by  the  voters  at  the  meeting.  In  case 
a  district  shall  discontinue  its  library,  the  district  board  may 
donate  or  sell  the  books  to  the  township  inspectors  to  be 
placed  in  the  township  library. 


VALUE   OF   LIBRARIES  183 

The  importance  and  value  of  well  selected  libraries  in 
connection  with  the  public  schools  are  now  generally  recog- 
nized, and  many  of  the  cities,  villages,  and  large  graded  dis- 
tricts have  provided  excellent  libraries  and  make  yearly  pro- 
visions for  their  increase.  Experience  seems  to  have  proved 
that  district  libraries  are  best,  and  can  be  maintained  profit- 
ably, in  the  larger  graded  districts, .  while  in  the  sparsely 
settled  sections  of  the  State,  where  the  population  of  each 
single  district  is  small,  only  township  libraries  can  be  prop- 
erly supported.  In  several  of  the  cities  elegant  and  excel- 
lent buildings  have  been  erected  for  the  public  libraries,  in 
some  cases  by  private  munificence ;  and  the  people  generally 
are  beginning  to  place  a  proper  estimate  upon  the  value  of 
well-selected  libraries  in  connection  with  the  public  schools 
of  all  grades. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
EQUALITY  OF  EDUCATIONAL-RIGHTS  AND  PRIVILEGES. 

Any  extended  account  of  the  struggle  to  secure  equality 
of  educational  rights  and  privileges  for  women  in  the  higher 
public  schools  would  be  out  of  place  here,  but  the  subject 
cannot  be  entirely  ignored  even  in  a  sketch  of  the  develop- 
ment of  primary  and  secondary  education  in  the  last  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  struggle  in  Michigan  re- 
lated chiefly  to  higher  education,  but  the  question  of  co- 
education, so-called,  occasionally  touched  the  lower  schools 
in  the  early  period.  Equality  of  education  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  co-education  or  identical  education,  although 
unfortunately  it  has  frequently  been  so  interpreted  and  in- 
sisted upon. 

The  open-minded  seeker  after  truth,  regardless  of  pre- 
conceived notions  and  favorite  theories,  must  admit  that  the 
question  whether  boys  and  girls,  young  men  and  young 
women,  of  all  dispositions  and  temperaments  should  be 
educated  in  the  same  schools,  taught  the  same  subjects,  in 
the  same  classes  and  by  the  same  teachers,  at  all  periods  of 
school  life,  is  one  that  has  at  least  two  sides,  and  cannot 
be  answered  dogmatically  and  off-hand  in  the  affirmative. 
The  answer  to  this  question,  whether  affirmatively  or  nega- 
tively, does  not,  in  any  way,  affect  the  claim  that  simple 
justice  demands  that  public  education  should  be  provided 
equally  for  both  sexes. 

It  wall  help  one  to  have  more  patience  with  the  slow  pro- 

184 


CONDITIONS    IN   THE   EARLY    PERIODS  185 

gress  of  the  efforts  to  secure  such  equality  for  women,  if 
he  recalls  the  fact  that  equal  educational  rights  for  all  classes 
and  conditions  of  men,  were  not  obtained  without  a  series 
of  struggles  extending  through  centuries,  and  that  today 
this  equality  is  found  in  only  a  few  of  the  most  highly  fav- 
ored countries.  Distinctions  of  class  have  presented  obsta- 
cles even  more  formidable  than  the  distinction  of  sex. 

There  were  highly  educated  and  learned  women  in  all  the 
historical  ages,  just  as  there  were  great  queens  and  empress- 
es, but  these  were  the  exceptions ;  women  almost  universally 
were  until  recently  debarred  from  everything  but  the  most 
elementary  education.  In  this  country  before  the  Revolu- 
tion, in  the  larger  towns,  girls  were  not  generally  admitted 
to  the  public  schools  with  the  boys.  The  district  schools 
in  the  smaller  towns  were  open  to  boys  and  girls  alike,  but 
the  girls  usually  attended  for  only  a  brief  period,  and  but 
few  of  them  went  beyond  reading,  spelling,  and  writing. 
Soon  after  Independence  had  been  secured,  there  arose  a 
demand  in  most  of  the  larger  places,  for  better  opportunities 
for  the  education  of  girls.  The  demand,  in  some  towns, 
was  that  they  should  be  admitted  to  the  boys'  schools.  At 
first,  the  people  generally,  when  the  question  was  put  in 
the  town  meetings,  voted  to  incur  no  additional  expense  for 
educating  girls.  The  first  concession  of  conservatism  was 
to  allow  the  masters  to  dismiss  the  boys  an  hour  earlier  in 
the  morning,  and  permit  the  girls  to  come  in  between  the 
forenoon  and  afternoon  sessions  for  an  hour  or  two.  Read- 
ing, spelling,  and  penmanship  were  taught  and  the  school 
was  called  a  ''writing  school."  A  little  later,  in  Boston,  a 
double-headed  system,  so-called,  was  established,  which  con- 
tinued for  many  years.     Some  of  the  public  schools  were 


l86  CONDITIONS   IN   BOSTON 

practically  divided  into  two  schools,  one  called  the  Writing 
school,  in  which  reading,  writing,  and  spelling  were  taught, 
the  other  the  Reading  school,  in  which  arithmetic  and  the 
other  elementary  branches  of  that  day  were  taught. 
Into  these  schools  girls  were  admitted  on  the  same  terms  as 
boys  for  six  months  in  the  year,  from  April  to  October,  but 
the  sexes  did  not  attend. at  the  same  time.  The  girls,  for 
example,  attended  the  Writing  school  in  the  forenoon,  and 
the  boys  the  Reading  school.  In  the  afternoon  the  boys  at- 
tended the  Writing  school,  and  the  girls  the  Reading  school. 
This  singular  arrangement  afforded  the  girls  half  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  boys.  Even  under  this  plan  the  more  am- 
bitious of  them  got  a  little  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  geogra- 
phy, and  grammar.  An  experimental  high  school  for  girls 
was  organized  in  Boston  in  1826,  but  proving  to  be  more 
largely  patronized  than  had  been  anticipated,  it  was  con- 
tinued only  two  years.  A  permanent  high  school  for  girls 
was  not  established  until  1854. 

The  nature  of  the  education  obtained  by  girls,  a  hundred 
years  ago,  in  the  public  district  schools  of  the  east,  will  be 
best  understood  from  the  description  given  by  one  who  at- 
tended them.  A  lady,  well-known  in  her  day  says :  "1 
commenced  going  to  a  district  school,  when  four  years  of 
age,  and  continued  summer  and  winter  until  I  was  thirteen. 
During  the  summer  terms  all  the  pupils  carried  sewing  and 
knitting,  and  had  regular  stints.  I  think  some  of  the  time 
I  must  have  nearly  earned  my  board  by  sewing.  As  the 
most  we  studied  in  school  was  reading,  spelling,  and  writ- 
ing, we  had  a  good  deal  of  time  for  work.  In  addition  to 
the  above  branches,  we  had  general  exercises  in  learning 
Abbreviations,  Key-sheet,  Rules  for  Punctuation,  Names  of 


BRANCHES  OF  STUDY  TAUGHT        187 

the  Towns  in  the  County,  Public  Officers,  and  Good  Man- 
ners. No  arithmetic  or  geography  was  taught  at  that  time. 
I  think  as  much  time  was  given  to  teaching  good  manners 
as  to  anything  else.  We  were  practiced  in  'making  our 
manners'  going  in  and  out  of  school,  and  to  strangers  pass- 
ing by  when  we  were  out  at  play.  Sometimes  the  pupils 
would  arrange  themselves  in  a  line  and  bow  or  courtesy  all 
together  when  the  minister  or  a  prominent  person  passed. 
We  were  requested  to  go  directly  home  from  school  and 
'make  our  manners'  to  our  parents.  All  the  books  I  can 
remember  using  were  Webster's  spelling  book,  the  New 
England  Primer,  the  American  Preceptor,  and  the  Bible. 
In  the  summer  school  I  was  taught  every  variety  of  sewing. 
In  regard  to  discipline,  I  cannot  remember  seeing  any  cor- 
poral punishment  in  the  summer  school,  and  but  little  in 
the  winter.  In  the  summer  school  the  teacher  was  paid  a 
dollar  a  week  and  her  board." 

After  the  age  of  thirteen  she  says  she  attended  school 
three  winters  taught  by  students  from  Harvard  college,  tal- 
ented men  and  enthusiastic  teachers.  During  these  winters 
she  studied  arithmetic  and  geography  such,  as  was  then 
taught,  and  gave  much  attention  to  reading.  Corporal  pun- 
ishment, she  says,  was  seldom  inflicted  by  any  of  the  teach- 
ers, and  one  teacher  never  inflicted  it. 

I  have  made  this  somewhat  condensed  extract  from  Mrs. 
Allen's  account  of  her  early  education  for  the  purpose  of 
calling  attention  to  two  or  three  points,  concerning  which 
quite  too  sweeping  statements  have  been  made  by  not  a 
few  writers  upon  early  education  and  the  early  schools  in 
the  country.  It  is  sometimes  stated  that  girls  were  not  al- 
lowed to  attend  the  primary  schools  with  the  boys  in  the 


l88  SCHOOL  ARRANGEMENTS 

early  days  in  New  England.  This  statement,  as  we  have 
seen,  is  true  in  relation  to  some,  possibly  all,  the  larger  cities 
and  towns.  It  is  not  true  as  to  the  rural  schools  generally. 
It  is  correct  to  say  that  the  summer  school  was  especially 
for  the  girls,  but  the  younger  boys  who  were  not  old  enough 
to  be  employed  on  the  farms  or  in  the  shops,  also  attended. 
It  is  true  that  the  winter  school  was  especially  for  the  boys, 
but  the  older  girls  might  also  attend,  as  in  the  case  of  Mrs. 
Allen.  As  a  rule  the  girls  received  little  instruction  in  arith- 
metic or  grammar. 

It  should  ■  be  noticed  that  ''manual  training"  of  certain 
kinds  was  taught  to  the  girls  very  generally.  The  boys  had 
a  fair  variety  of  such  training  in  connection  with  their 
home  life.  I  can  testify  to  the  instruction  in  "manners" 
from  my  own  personal  experience  in  a  New  England  dis- 
trict school. 

The  remarks  of  Mrs.  Allen  in  respect  to  corporal  pun- 
ishment should  be  observed.  It  is  very  common  for  modern 
writers  to  paint  the  ''master"  of  one  of  the  old-time  schools, 
as  a  sort  of  monster,  armed  with  ferule,  strap,  and  birch 
rods,  and  taking  genuine  pleasure  in  applying  these  to  the 
hands  and  backs  of  his  pupils.  There  were  such  "masters," 
many  of  them  without  doubt.  But  all  the  teachers  of  the 
common  schools  of  the  last  century,  or  of  the  century  before 
the  last,  were  not  of  that  kind.  Humanity  and  humane 
methods  in  the  schools,  were  known  and  practiced  by  many 
teachers  even  a  hundred  years  ago.  I  saw  very  little  of 
corporal  punishment  in  the  schools  of  a  New  Hampshire 
country  district  sixty  and  seventy  years  before  the  twentieth 
century  opened.  It  is  not  necessary  to  darken  the  shades 
which  paint  the  past  in  order  to  render  the  tints  of  today 


INSTRUCTION  IN  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS  189 

lighter  by  contrast. 

Though  not  entirely  germane  to  our  main  purpose,  it 
may  be  worth  our  while  to  know  the  kind  of  instruction  and 
training  given  to  young  ladies  in  some  of  the  better  private 
schools,  and  in  some  of  the  more  favored  families  of  that 
period.  Miss  Elizabeth  P.  Peabody,  so  well-known  for  her 
efforts  in  behalf  of  kindergartens  and  for  other  services  to 
the  cause  of  education,  in  writing  of  some  of  her  immediate 
ancestors,  says :  "Not  a  few  of  the  colonists,  women  as 
well  as  men,  shared  in  the  same  culture  and  the  same  re- 
sponsibilities which  made  such  sterling  characters  as  illus- 
trate the  annals  of  the  English  commonwealth.  I  know 
that  my  mother  had  this  kind  of  education.  I  remember 
her  telling  me  that  she  never  remembered  the  time  when 
she  did  not  read  Shakespear,  and  vshe  described  herself  as 
lying  on  the  floor  and  reading  it  aloud  to  her  grandmother 
when  she  was  four  years  old."  Miss  Peabody's  own 
education  was  not  in  the  public  schools,  like  Mrs.  Allen's, 
but  chiefly  in  a  private  school  taught  by  her  mother,  a  school 
which  afforded  to  young  ladies  an  opportunity  for  a  most 
excellent  secondary  education.  The  aim  of  the  school  was 
History  and  Literature.  The  qualification  for  entrance  was 
to  be  able  to  read  English  intelligibly,  and  the  youngest 
pupils  were  eight  and  ten  years  of  age.  They  were  taught 
arithmetic,  grammar,  and  writing,  geography,  map  draw- 
ing in  colors,  and  to  write  imaginary  journeys  requiring 
much  consultation  of  gazetteers  and  books  of  travel.  Four 
afternoons  in  the  week  were  devoted  to  the  reading  of  his- 
tory and  literature,  much  after  the  present  "round-table"  or 
"laboratory  method,"  a  good  deal  of  conversation  being  had 
upon  what  was  read.     While  one  read,  the  others  did  plain 


I90  EDUCATION    FOR   GIRLS    IN    MICHIGAN 

sewing  or  some  work  that  would  occupy  the  fingers  and  not 
the  mind.  Selections  were  read  from  the  Spectator,  the 
Rambler,  and  from  the  best  Reviews.  Memoirs  of  the  most 
distinguished  and  learned  women,  like  Mrs.  Summerville, 
Mrs.  Barbauld,  and  Maria  Edgeworth,  were  given  to  the 
pupils  to  be  read  in  private. 

The  education  provided  for  girls  and  young  women,  in  the 
older  sections  of  the  country,  when  the  territory  of  Michigan 
was  organized,  and  even  later  when  the  State  government 
was  established,  was  generally  of  the  character  indicated 
above.  The  public  facilities  for  their  education  extended 
only  to  the  lowest  elementary  studies.  Private  schools  were 
of  varying  degrees  of  excellency,  but  most  of  them  aimed 
to  give  what  were  called  the  ornamental  branches,  the  ''ac- 
complishments." 

During  our  Territorial  period  no  special  public  provision 
was  made  for  the  instruction  of  girls;  some  private  schools 
were  opened,  now  and  then,  for  a  few  months;  a  seminary 
for  girls  was  established  by  ''Father  Richard."  The  organi- 
zation of  the  State  government  produced  no  great  immediate 
change.  "Female  departments"  were  established  in  con- 
nection with  several  of  the  "Branches"  of  the  University, 
which  provided  something  of  secondary  education.  The 
courses  of  study  for  girls  were  usually  less  extended  than 
those  for  boys,  and  the  requirements  for  entrance  were  less. 

For  entrance  to  the  male  department  it  was  necessary  to 
pass  an  examination  "in  reading,  spelling,  writing,  the  ele- 
ments of  English  grammar,  geography,  and  arithmetic." 

For  admission  to  the  female  department  an  examination 
was  required  only  "in  reading,  spelling,  writing,  and  the 
rudiments  of  geography."  * 


GIRLS  IN  THE  "BRANCHES" 


191 


In  some  cases,  the  two  departments  were  quite  distinct 
in  their  arrangements,  and  in  many  cases  the  sexes  were 
instructed  in  separate  classes,  and  by  different  teachers. 
Co-education,  in  the  full  modern  sense  of  the  term,  was  not 
generally  considered  desirable  or  practicable,  beyond  the 
primary  school.  In  1840,  in  the  branch  at  Monroe,  there 
were  56  young  men  and  50  young  women  ;  at  White  Pigeon, 
63  young  men  and  35  young  w^omen ;  at  Niles,  35  young 
men  and  22  young  ladies ;  at  Tecumseh,  48  young  men  and 
24  young  ladies.  The  other  branches  had  no  departments 
for  ladies  during  that  year.  When  the  branches  were  dis- 
continued. State  provisions  for  secondary  education,  either 
for  men  or  women,  temporarily  ceased.  By  the  establish- 
ment of  union  graded  schools,  with  high  school  departments, 
the  cities  and  larger  yillages  soon  began  to  provide  such 
education  equally  for  both  sexes,  though  the  studies  were 
not,  in  all  cases,  the  same,  and  sometimes  the  ladies  were 
taught  in  separate  classes.  The  State  normal  school,  when 
established,  was  open  on  equal  terms  to  men  and  women, 
but  the  studies  for  both  were  not  always  ide^itical  during  the 
first  years  of  its  history.  At  one  period  Latin  and  Greek 
were  prescribed  for  young  men,  and  Latin  and  French  for 
young  women  as  requisites  for  graduation. 

The  general  sentiment  among  teachers  and  school  officers 
in  relation  to  co-education,  in  the  decade  from  1850  to  i860, 
may  be  inferred  from  replies  to  a  circular  of  inquiry  sent  out 
by  the  State  superintendent  in  1856. 

The  Principal  of  the  Ann  Arbor  schools  said:  "In  the 
intermediate  and  high  schools  the  different  sexes  occupy" 
different  study  rooms ;  but  they  meet  at  all  general  exer- 
cises, and  so  constantly  for  instruction  in  classes,  that  there 


192  OPINIONS  OF  TEACHERS 

is  scarcely  an  hour  when  pupils  of  both  sexes  are  not  occu- 
pying every  room.  The  advantages  of  the  co-education  of 
the  sexes,  which  are  too  great  to  be  sacrificed  from  regard 
to  mere  convenience,  are  thus  secured ;  while  on  the  other 
hand,  the  ladies  of  the  school  can  receive  from  a  Preceptress 
many  a  useful  lesson,  and  consult  her  with  a  freedom  which 
would  otherwise  be  wanting.'' 

The  Principal  at  Coldwater  wrote:  ''After  considerable 
experience,  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  co-education  of  the 
sexes  is  decidedly  preferable  to  their  being  educated  sepa- 
rately. It  is  true  that  evils,  serious  evils,  may  attend  this 
system,  in  individual  cases ;  but  under  proper  regulations 
and  restraints  I  regard  it  as  the  best ;  and  that  the  evils  are 
the  exceptions,  not  the  rule." 

The  President  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  Detroit,  said : 
"So  far  as  my  experience  and  observation  go,  advantages 
result  from  the  co-education  of  the  sexes.  I  should  never 
separate  them  in  school,  unless  as  a  mere  matter  of  con- 
venience." 

The  director  of  the  union  school  in  Dexter  wrote:  "I 
am  of  the  opinion  that  the  sexes  should  invariably  receive 
their  mental  training  together." 

The  Principal  at  Flint  said :  "Great  advantages,  in  my 
opinion,  result  from  the  education  of  boys  and  girls  in  the 
same  schools,  and  seated  in  the  same  room ;  and  I  have  never 
heard  any  disadvantages  alluded  to,  that  may  not  be  wholly 
overcome,  and  most  of  them  changed  to  great  advantages, 
by  good  buildings,  spacious  and  handsome  grounds,  and 
well-qualified  teachers." 

Public  sentiment,  from  that  time  to  the  present,  has  gen- 
erally, if  not  universally,  favored  co-education  in  all  grades 


EQUAL  OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  WOMEN  193 

of  the  public  schools,  with  such  arrangements  that  teachers 
can  meet  the  sexes  separately  whenever  this  may  be  desira- 
ble, as  it  sometimes  is. 

Since  it  is  a  matter  upon  which  all  students  of  educational 
history  should  have  some  information,  it  will  not  be  out  of 
place  to  refer  briefly  to  the  series  of  discussions  and  efforts 
which  resulted  in  opening  the  University  and  other  State 
institutions  of  higher  learning  to  women  on  equal  terms 
with  men. 

The  demand  that  the  State  should  furnish  opportunities 
and  facilities  for  higher  education  for  women  equal  to 
those  furnished  for  men,  began  to  be  made  at  a  very  early 
period  in  the  history  of  the  State.  The  abstract  justice  of 
the  demand  was  admitted  from  the  beginning,  but  there 
was  no  haste  in  complying  with  it  by  any  practical  measures. 
Provisions  could  be  made  in  either  of  two  ways ;  the  exist- 
ing University  could  be  thrown  open  for  the  admission  of 
women,  or  another  institution  of  similar  character  could 
be  established  for  their  benefit.  Opinions  were  divided ; 
some  advocated  the  first  plan,  others  preferred  the  second. 
Equally  earnest  and  intelligent  friends  of  advanced  educa- 
tion for  women  were  found  in  both  parties.  Naturally  the 
question  of  expense  became  an  important  consideration  in 
the  debates. 

Superintendent  Shearman,  in  1854,  wrote :  "General  anx- 
iety has  been  expressed  relative  to  the  establishment  of  an 
institution  of  high  grade  for  the  education  of  females.  In 
the  original  plan  of  our  educationtl  system,  such  an 
institution  was  contemplated  as  a  branch  of  the 
University.  The  education  of  the  sexes  together 
is    deemed  by      the    greater    portion    of    our    people    as 


194        VIEWS  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  SHEARMAN 

an  object  of  importance.  They  are  so  educated  in  the  pri- 
mary schools,  and  that  too,  without  detriment  to  their  social 
positions  or  their  morals.  To  establish  a  female  department 
in  the  University,  would  be  to  carry  out  this  idea,  but  it 
would  not  seem  after  all,  to  be  practical  to  do  this.  A  general 
law  may  be  necessary  to  secure  legislation  on  this  subject, 
if  it  is  proposed  to  establish  a  separate  institution.  When- 
ever such  an  institution  is  established,  however,  it  should 
be  established  on  a  practical  basis : — it  should  be  an  institu- 
tion not  only  where  the  graces  and  accomplishments  which 
pertain  to  the  highest  cultivation  of  the  female  character 
can  be  taught,  but  where  at  the  same  time,  instruction  could 
be  afforded  in  the  art  of  domestic  economy,  and  in  those 
things  which  pertain  to  practical  usefulness  in  life.  The 
cultivation  of  the  intellect  and  graces,  and  the  knowledge  re- 
quired to  make  a  loaf  of  bread,  and  to  know  the  constituent 
parts  of  which  it  is  composed,  are  things  which  together 
give  the  highest  perfection  to  the  true  female  character,  and 
increase  our  appreciation  of  real  womanhood.  An  institu- 
tion which  would  secure  such  an  education,  would  indeed 
be  an  object  worthy  of  all  commendation." 

In  1856,  Superintendent  Mayhew  said :  "Memorials  were 
widely  circulated,  and  presented  to  the  Legislature  two  years 
ago,  praying  for  the  establishment  of  a  Female  college  under 
the  fostering  care  of  the  State.  This  subject  was  then  con- 
siderably discussed  by  the  press,  by  members  of  the  Legis- 
lature, by  the  more  active  friends  of  education,  and  by  citi- 
zens generally  in  various  portions  of  the  State." 

He  states  that  memorials  were  then  in  circulation  calling 
the  attention  of  the  Legislature  *'to  the  fact  that  no  provis- 
ion is  made  by  the  State  for  the  education  of  young  women 


OPINION  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  MAYHEW       195 

beyond  the  primary  schools,  unless  they  wish  to  become 
teachers,"  and  praying  that  a  fund  might  be  created  for 
the  support  of  an  institution  for  the  higher  education  of 
women,  which  should  give  them  opportunities  and  advan- 
tages equal  to  those  enjoyed  by  young  men. 

Mr.  Mayhew  took  the  ground  that  it  was  not  necessary 
to  establish  another  institution  for  the  higher  education  of 
women ;  he  insisted  that  they  had  a  legal  right  to  enter  the 
existing  University  on  precisely  the  same  conditions  as  men. 
To  substantiate  his  contention  he  quoted  the  statutory  pro- 
vision of  the  act  for  the  organization  of  the  University: 
"The  University  shall  be  open  to  all  persons  residents  of 
this  State,  without  charge  of  tuition,  under  the  regulations 
prescribed  by  the  Regents." 

If  women  are  persons,  which  he  believed  would  not  be 
controverted,  then  their  right  to  enter  the  University  was 
established  beyond  question.  Mr.  Mayhew's  position  was 
not  regarded  as  tenable  by  the  majority  of  people  at  that 
time ;  but  it  is  worth  noting  that  the  regents  adopted  essen- 
tially the  same  view,  a  few  years  later,  when  they  finally 
opened  the  doors  of  the  institution  to  the  free  admission  ot 
women. 

The  subject  of  co-education  or  of  equal  educational  ad- 
vantages for  women  was  discussed  frequently  and  earnestly 
at  the  meetings  of  the  State  teachers'  association  for  fifteen 
years.  The  first  extended  debate  occurred  in  1855,  at  Ann 
Arbor.  Upon  the  question  whether  the  University  should 
be  open  to  women,  or  a  separate  institution  should  be  estab- 
lished for  them,  there  was  considerable  diversity  of  opinion ; 
it  was  generally  assumed  that  the  courses  of  study  in  the 
University  would  necessarily  have  to  be  considerably  modi- 


196  REPORT  TO  THE  REGENTS,  1859 

fied  if  ladies  were  admitted,  and  fears  were  expressed  that 
the  standard  would  thereby  be  lowered.  The  idea  of  iden- 
tical co-education  was  not,  at  that  time,  generally  entertain- 
ed, nor  was  it  supposed  that  both  sexes  would  be  taught  in 
the  same  classes  in  all  subjects.  The  extension  of  the  elec- 
tive system  has  removed  some  of  the  difficulties  then  antici- 
pated, and  the  natural  progress  of  events  has  removed  others. 

One  who  desires  to  understand  the  views  and  perplexities 
of  intelligent,  candid,  and  conservative  men  in  Michigan, 
forty  or  fifty  years  ago,  should  read  a  report  made  by  a 
committee  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  in  1859  upon  the  peti- 
tion of  certain  young  women  to  be  permitted  to  enter  the 
University.  The  report  was  written  in  a  most  admirable 
spirit,  and  treated  the  subject  in  all  its  bearings  in  a  manner 
entirely  dispassionate.  The  conclusions  of  the  committee 
were  adverse  to  the  request  of  the  petitioners  on  grounds  of 
expediency,  but  the  right  of  women  to  equal  advantages  for 
higher  education  was  fully  admitted. 

On  the  influence  of  this  report  President  Haven  said  in 
1867,  "Since  that  time,  I  believe,  no  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction  in  the  State,  no  board  of  visitors,  nor  other 
authorities  appointed  to  investigate  the  aflFairs  of  the  Uni- 
versiy,  have  recommended  a  departure  from  the  policy  es- 
tablished from  the  beginning."  Of  the  results  which  would 
follow  the  admission  of  women,  he  said:  "I  am  confident 
that  such  a  change  could  not  be  made  without  a  radical  revo- 
lution, that  would  require  a  large  expenditure  of  money  and 
give  a  totally  new  character  to  the  University,  and  infalli- 
bly be  attended  with  a  temporary  breaking  up  of  its  pros- 
perity." He  favored  the  establishment  of  a  separate  col- 
lege for  women  which  should  give  them  all  the  facilities  en- 


VIEWS  OF  PRESIDENT  HAVEN  197 

joyed  by  young  men. 

During  the  same  year  the  Legisature  resolved:  "That 
it  is  the  dehberate  opinion  of  this  Legislature  that  the  high 
objects  for  which  the  University  of  Michigan  was  organized 
will  never  be  fully  attained  until  women  are  admitted  to  all 
its  rights  and  privileges." 

This  put  a  new  aspect  upon  affairs;  and  in  his  report  of 
the  following  year,  Dr.  Haven,  after  referring  to  this  reso- 
lution and  to  his  previously  expressed  opinions,  stated  that 
he  had  come  to  the  conclusion  "that  the  best  method  for 
Michigan  would  be  to  make  provisions  for  the  instruction 
of  women  at  the  University,  on  the  same  conditions  as  men." 
He  took  a  more  cheerful  and  hopeful  view  of  the  probable 
consequences  than  he  had  taken  the  previous  year.  He 
said:  "I  have  come  to  this  conclusion  slowly;  a  few  objec- 
tions have  sometimes  seemed  to  me  strong,  but  the  most  of 
what  is  urged  against  it  is  fanciful,  and  partakes  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  thoughtless  opposition  made  to  what  is  new. 
The  standard  of  education  would  not  be  changed,  the  habits 
of  study  would  not  be  affected.  The  honor  of  the  Univer- 
sity would  be  increased  rather  than  diminished."  President 
Haven,  more  than  most  men  of  his  rank,  was  exempt  from 
that  false  notion  of  consistency  which  forbids  a  man  to  ac- 
knowledge that  he  has  changed  his  opinion,  or  that  circum- 
stances may  justify  a  change  of  policy. 

Two  years  later,  on  the  fifth  of  January,  1870,  the  govern- 
ing board  of  the  institution  resolved,  "That  the  Board  of 
Regents  recognize  the  right  of  every  resident  of  Michigan 
to  the  enjoyment  of  the  privileges  of  the  University;  and 
that  no  rule  exists  in  the  University  statutes  for  the  exclus- 
ion of  any  person  from  the  University,  who  possesses  the 


198        WOMEN  ADMITTED  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY 

requisite  literary  and  moral  qualifications."  This  ended  a 
struggle  which  had  continued  for  five  and  twenty  years. 
All  State  educational  institutions  in  Michigan,  from  the  low- 
est to  the  highest,  are  open  on  the  same  conditions  to  both 
sexes. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  claim  special  credit  and  spec- 
ial honor  for  particular  individuals  or  particular  organiza- 
tions in  bringing  about  this  result.  Many  individuals  are 
entitled  to  great  credit  and  to  grateful  remembrance,  for 
their  efforts  towards  securing  equality  of  educational  rights 
and  privileges  for  women;  but  preeminence  cannot  with  jus- 
tice be  claimed  for  any  one  person.  The  end  was  attained 
by  the  combined  labors  of  the  friends  of  justice  and  of  ra- 
tional progress.  It  is  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the  spirit  of 
the  age. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
AS  TO  MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTION. 

The  religious  instinct  or  sentiment  is  one  of  the  most  fun- 
damental and  powerful  elements  in  the  human  soul,  and  in 
human  society.  The  question  of  the  origin  of  this  sentiment 
is  not  important  for  our  present  purpose;  its  existence  and 
influence  must  be  recognized. 

The  men  of  today  are  prone  to  judge  the  men  and  meas- 
ures of  a  half  century  ago  by  the  standards  and  conditions 
of  the  present  decade ;  to  forget  the  changes  which  have  oc- 
curred, the  liberalizing  influence  of,a  broader  and  more  gen- 
eral culture,  the  humanizing  effects  of  more  intimate  inter- 
course and  acquaintance  between  people  of  all  classes,  of 
all  sorts,  and  of  diverse  opinions  and  races.  Some  one  has 
said:  "It  is  all  well  enough  for  us  of  another  generation 
to  wax  wise  with  advice  to  those  who  bore  the  burden  and 
heat  of  the  day."  It  indicates  our  superior  wisdom,  and 
gratifies  our  self-complacency.  This  tendency  is  not  want- 
ing among  the  workers  in  the  educational  field ;  occasionally 
it  manifests  itself  in  an  offensive  form. 

In  the  organization  of  pubHc  school  systems,  in  the  man- 
agement of  public  institutions  of  learning  of  all  grades,  in 
the  selection  of  officers  and  instructors,  and  in  educational 
affairs  generally,  it  has  been  a  necessity,  in  the  not  very 
remote  past,  to  take  this  reHgious  sentiment  into  account; 
and  the  time  has  not  yet  come  when  it  can  with  safety  be 
entirely  ignored,  whatever  may  be  the  affirmations  of  a  sur- 

199 


200  VIEWS  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  PIERCE 

face  philosophy  and  of  men  with  no  profound  personal  con- 
victions upon  the  subject  of  morals  or  religion. 

The  founders  of  the  Michigan  school  system  wisely  recog- 
nized these  obvious  truths.  In  his  first  report  Superintend- 
ent Pierce  said :  "It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  study  of 
theology,  as  a  profession,  can  ever  be  made  a  separate  de- 
partment of  the  University.  *  *  *  *  But  so  far  as  the 
great  principles  of  the  science  of  theology  are  concerned, 
they  necessarily  come  within  the  compass  of  that  general 
knowledge  with  which  every  well  educated  young  man  ought 
to  be  acquainted." 

The  first  legislative  act  for  the  organization  of  that  in- 
stitution provided  for  a  Professorship  ''of  moral  philosophy, 
and  natural  theology,  including  the  history  of  all  religions." 
So  much  Mr.  Pierce  believed  to  be  essential  to  the  continued 
existence  of  the  University.  While  no  religious  test  should 
be  allowed,  and  no  sectarian  dogmas  should  be  inculcated, 
yet  Christianity,  as  the  religion  of  the  people,  should  be 
fully  and  freely  recognized.  He  wrote:  "The  fact  is  not 
to  be  concealed  that  there  is  a  strong  prejudice  in  the  minds 
of  many  worthy  and  enlightened  men  against  State  institu- 
tions. This  feeling  has  originated  from  the  attempt  of 
two  or  three  States  to  exclude  everything  in  the  form  of  re- 
ligion from  their  universities.  The  moral  sense  of  the  com- 
munity was  found  to  be  against  the  plan,  and  the  institu- 
tions could  not  flourish.  The  truth  is,  the  nature  of  man  is 
such  that  this  result  might  have  been  anticipated.  There 
is  a  medium  between  bigotry  on  the  one  hand,  and  atheism 
on  the  other,  and  the  success  of  the  University,  its  life, 
energy,  character  and  usefulness,  will  essentially  depend  on 
that  medium  course." 


POSITION  OF  THE  REGENTS  201 

The  board  of  regents  recognized  the  wisdom  of  this  me- 
dium course  in  providing  teachers  for  the  ''branches,"  and 
also  in  selecting  Professors  for  the  University  itself.  It  was 
necessary,  moreover,  to  avoid  giving  oft'ense  to  one  sect  by 
an  appearance  of  favoring  some  other.  "Sectarian  opinion 
and  sectarian  feeling  were  far  sharper  in  1837  than  they 
are  in  1900,"  and  had  to  be  reckoned  with  in  the  manage- 
ment of  all  public  educational  institutions. 

In  an  early  report  of  the  regents,  written  probably  by  Mr. 
Schoolcraft,  a  gentleman  of  national  reputation  and  not  a 
clergyman,  when  speaking  of  the  selection  of  instructors,  he 
said:  "It  was  conceived  that  the  requirements  of  the  act 
and  the  duty  of  the  board  in  this  respect  would  not  have 
been  fully  performed  by  merely  obtaining  instructors  of 
competent  literary  and  natural  abilities,  disconnected  from 
their  moral  influence,  both  in  the  branches  and  the  com- 
munities in  which  they  are  located,  and  it  has  ever  consti- 
tuted an  object  to  find  men  both  as  principals  and  subordin- 
ates, who  united  sound  learning  and  apt  judgment,  and 
practical  piety.  Of  the  seven  branches  established,  five  are 
under  the  direction  of  clergymen,  and  two  of  laymen,  of 
various  religious  denominations.  Two  clergymen  are  also 
embraced  among  the  assistants  and  tutors,  the  whole  number 
of  whom  add  to  their  literary  qualifications  those  arising 
from  religious  considerations.  The  board  cannot,  they  be- 
lieve, be  mistaken  in  the  importance  they  attach  to  the 
connection  between  learning  and  morals,  science  and  reli- 
gion ;  and  at  any  rate,  they  would  be  unjust  to  themselves 
not  to  express  the  belief  that  success  can  not  permanently 
crown  the  institution  committed  to  their  management,  after 
this  ligament  is  severed." 


202  VIEWS  OF  DR.  DUFFIELD 

In  a  report  of  the  following  year,  Dr.  Duffield,  one  of  the 
most  prominent  and  influential  men  of  his  denomination, 
wrote:  ''Whatever  variations  of  sect  exist  in  the  United 
States,  the  great  mass  of  the  population  profess  an  attach- 
ment to  Christianity,  and,  as  a  free  people,  avow  themselves 
Christian.  There  is  a  common  ground  occupied  by  them  all, 
sufficient  for  co-operation  in  an  institution  of  learning,  and 
for  the  presence  of  a  religious  influence,  devoid  of  any  sec- 
tarian forms  and  peculiarities,  so  essential,  not  only  as  the 
most  efficient  police,  but  also  for  the  development  and  for- 
mation of  the  most  valuable  traits  of  youthful  character,  and 
qualifications  for  future  usefulness.  Experiments  made  in 
other  States,  by  catering  to  morbid  prejudices  of  sectarians, 
have  only  embarrassed  the  institutions  of  the  State  and 
matured  the  growth  of  numerous  and  rival  colleges,  avow- 
edly sectarian.  Attempts  made  to  exclude  all  religious  in- 
fluence whatever  from  colleges,  have  only  rendered  them 
the  sectarian  engines  of  an  atheistical  or  infidel  party  or 
faction,  and  so  offended  and  disgusted  the  majority  of  the 
population  agreeing  in  their  respect  for  a  common  Christian- 
ity, that  they  have  withdrawn  their  support,  confidence  and 
patronage,  and  left  them  to  drag  out  a  miserable  existence, 
till  they  invoked  the  presence  and  influence  of  the  Christian 
religion  in  them." 

These  extracts  have  reference  to  the  management  of  in- 
stitutions of  advanced  and  secondary  instruction.  The  same 
considerations,  however,  had  equal  weight,  at  that  period, 
in  the  management  of  elementary  schools.  Such  schools 
had  their  origin  in  the  early  Christian  church,  and  were  for 
a  long  time  controlled  by  its  ministers.  The  instruction 
given  in  them  was  more  religious  than  secular  or  literary. 


REUGION  IN  THE  EARI.Y  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS      203 

In  our  own  country,  during  the  colonial  period,  they  were 
as  much  parochial  as  public,  and  their  character  did  not 
change  immediately  when  the  colonies  became  States.  ''They 
were  under  the  constant  and  vigilant  supervision  of  the 
ministers.  The  minister  was  a  town  officer,  as  the  teacher 
was.  He  was  employed  for  the  religious  instruction  of  the 
people,  and  the  children  were  a  most  important  part  of  his 
charge.  So  he  visited  the  school  regularly;  frequently 
questioned  the  children  on  the  sermon  of  the  preceding 
Sunday,  and  periodically  examined  them  in  the  catechism 
and  in  their  knowledge  of  the  Bible.  Sometimes  the  chil- 
dren were  required  to  go  to  him  for  this  purpose.  The 
ministers  regarded  this  relation  not  only  as  a  duty,  but  as 
a  right."*  In  Massachusetts,  and  in  some  others  States,  the 
first  school  books  were  the  Bible,  the  Psalter,  and  the  fam- 
ous New  England  Primer.  In  some  of  the  schools  the 
Shorter  Catechism  was  regularly  used.  Gradually  the 
Spelling  book  and  some  Reader  took  the  place  of  these  for 
reading  purposes,  although  more  or  less  of  religious  in- 
struction continued  to  be  given  for  many  years. 

In  the  older  States  no  controversies  concerning  religious 
instruction  in  the  schools  took  place  so  long  as  the  people 
generally  belonged  to  the  same  church  and  accepted  the 
same  creed.  But  the  springing  up  of  new  sects,  with  con- 
flicting articles  of  faith,  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs.  Re- 
ligious teaching  and  exercises  which  favored  one  sect  at 
the  expense  of  another  began  to  arouse  vigorous  opposition. 
The  contention,  at  first,  was  not  between  the  friends  and  the 
enemies  of  religion  or  of  the  Bible,  but  between  differing 


*  Martin's  Evolution  of  the  Massachusetts  Public  School  Sj'stem, 
page  64. 


204  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  OI.DER  STATES 

denominations.  It  was  not  the  question  of  the  Bible  in  the 
schools,  but  of  sectarian  interpretations  of  Biblical  doctrines. 
As  an  unavoidable  result,  religious  instruction  in  the  public 
schools  gradually  ceased,  and  unfortunately  moral  instruc- 
tion and  training,  in  many  cases,  ceased  at  the  same  time. 
It  was  not  believed  that  morals  could  be  taught  apart  frc^m 
religion.  The  reading  of  the  Bible  was  continued  in  the 
majority  of  the  schools,  although  the  question  of  its  use  was 
beginning  to  be  agitated. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  affairs  in  Massachusetts  in 
1837,  when  Horace  Mann  became  Secretary  of  the  newly 
created  Board  of  Education,  and  "The  Common  School  Re- 
vival" began.  Similar  conditions  existed  in  other  States, 
and  especially  in  the  State  of  New  York.  Michigan,  just 
organizing  her  school  system,  could  not  escape  the  influence 
of  these  conditions.  The  population  of  the  new  State  was 
mostly  of  New  England  or  New  York  origin.  Of  the  one 
hundred  members  of  the  constitutional  convention  of  1850, 
eighty-one  were  natives  of  New  England  and  New  York. 
They  had  brought  with  them  their  inherited  and  acquired 
opinions  and  prejudices.  Doubtless  new  surroundings  and 
new  associations  tended  to  modify  these  to  a  considerable 
extent,  but  it  needed  only  slight  provocation  to  kindle  up 
the  smouldering  embers  into  fierce  flames.  Mr.  Mann  soon 
found  himself  under  a  fire  of  sharp  criticism  upon  the  reli- 
gious question  and  a  bitter  and  prolonged  controversy  fol- 
lowed. No  extended  account  can  be  given  here  of  the  con- 
flict, but  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  it  briefly  for  the  better 
understanding  of  conditions  in  Michigan.  Dr.  B.  A.  Hins- 
dale writes:  ''The  struggle  that  now  ensued  in  Massa- 
chusetts was  the  first  of  its  kind  witnessed  in  the  country. 


CONTROVERSY  IN  NEW  YORK  205 

Since  that  day  it  has  been  repeated  in  many  other  States. 
Nor  can  it  be  confidently  predicted  that  it  will  not  be  re- 
peated again.  In  fact,  in  some  form,  more  or  less  active, 
this  struggle  has  been  going  on  from  that  day  to  this.  The 
issue  is  confessedly  a  most  important  one.  It  involves  noth- 
ing else  than  the  question  of  adjusting  the  State  school  to 
the  whole  existing  system  of  agencies  by  which  the  religious 
training  of  children  is  carried  on,  the  family,  the  Sunday- 
school,  and  the  church."* 

In  the  end  Mr.  Mann  was  sustained  by  a  great  majority 
of  the  people  of  the  State,  a  law  was  enacted  which,  with  a 
slight  modification,  remains  still  upon  the  statute  book,  re- 
quiring the  Bible  to  be  read  daily  in  all  the  public  schools 
of  that  Commonwealth.  Children  may  be  excused  from 
taking  part  in  this  exercise  at  the  request  of  their  parents. 

The  controversy  in  New  York  arose  under  dififerent  cir- 
cumstances, and  took  a  different  form,  but  it  was  fully  as 
bitter  as  in  Massachusetts  and  more  protracted.  The  vital 
question  involved  was  the  distribution  of  the  proceeds  of 
the  public  school  funds  and  school  taxes  among  the  various 
religious  denominations  and  organizations  to  be  used  for 
the  support  of  parochial  and  other  sectarian  schools.  Some 
of  the  most  prominent  public  men  of  the  State,  among  them 
Governor  Seward,  favored  such  a  distribution.  The  de- 
mand, however,  for  such  division  was  rejected.  The  legis- 
lative act  for  the  settlement  of  the  controversy  contained 
this  provision:  "No  school  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  any 
portion  of  the  school  moneys,  in  which  the  religious  doc- 
trines or  tenets  of  any  particular  Christian  or  other  reli- 


*HinsdaIe's   Horace   Mann   and  the   Common   School   Revival, 
page  214. 


2o6  CONDITIONS  IN  MICHIGAN 

gious  sect  shall  be  taught,  inculcated,  or  practiced,  or  in 
which  any  book  or  books  containing  compositions  favor- 
able or  prejudicial  to  the  particular  doctrines  or  tenets  of 
any  religious  sect  *  *  *  *  But  nothing  herein  contained 
shall  authorize  the  Board  of  Education  to  exclude  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  without  note  or  comment,  or  any  selections  there- 
from, from  any  of  the  schools  provided  for  in  this  act."* 

It  was  inevitable  that  the  echoes  of  these  angry  conflicts 
should  be  heard  in  the  forests  of  the  new  State.  The  most 
imminent  danger  was  that  jealousy  should  be  aroused  be- 
tween different  religious  bodies ;  the  demand  for  purely  sec- 
ular schools  was  not  yet  a  source  of  disquiet.  This  would 
be  heard  in  due  time.  It  was  the  part  of  wisdom  to  avoid, 
as  far  as  possible,  all  occasion  for  controversy,  to  provoke 
no  disputes  or  conflicts,  which,  whatever,  might  be  their 
termination,  could  not  fail  to  work  serious  harm,  if  not  posi- 
tive disaster.  Hence  the  wise  and  cautious  conservatism 
of  Superintendent  Pierce  and  his  immediate  successors,  and 
the  careful  prudence  of  the  regents  of  the  University. 

Neither  in  the  first  nor  in  the  second  constitution  of  the 
State  does  the  article  on  Education  make  any  reference  to 
religion  or  to  moral  and  religious  instruction.  In  what  may 
be  called  the  bill  of  rights,  the  constitution  of  1835  provides 
for  freedom  of  worship,  forbids  taxation  for  the  support  of 
ministers  or  teachers  of  religion,  and  declares  that  "no 
money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  for  the  benefit  of 
religious  societies,  or  theological  or  religious  seminaries," 
and  that  the  rights  and  privileges  of  individuals  shall  not 
be  affected  in  any  way  by  their  religious  opinions  or  beliefs. 


*Randairs  History  of  the  Common  School  System  of  New  York, 
page  138. 


CONDITIONS  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  207 

The  constitution  of  1850.  contains,  in  substance,  the  same 
provisions,  with  a  special  provision  that  the  Legislature 
may  authorize  the  employment  of  a  chaplain  for  the  State 
Prison;  but  forbids  the  appropriation  of  money  to  pay  for 
religious  services  in  either  house  of  the  Legislature. 

The  early  utterances  of  Superintendent  Pierce  and  of  the 
regents  of  the  University  have  been  noticed ;  it  remains  to 
follow  the  course  of  subsequent  events  and  measures.  The 
authorities  of  the  University  have  never  formally  announced 
any  definite  policy  upon  religious  questions,  but  have  con- 
tinued to  follow,  in  the  main,  the  course  outlined  by  Mr. 
Schoolcraft  and  Dr.  Duffield.  They  have  received  criti- 
cism, sometimes  because  there  was  too  little  religion,  as  it 
was  charged ;  and  at  other  times  because  there  was,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  critics,  too  much.  While  this  is  not  intended 
to  be  a  history  of  the  University,  a  little  further  reference 
to  this  particular  phase  of  its  history  seems  necessary  to 
our  purpose. 

In  1857,  the  representatives  of  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
religious  organizations  of  the  State,  in  their  yearly  meetings, 
made  deliverances  of  which  the  following  are  the  main 
points :  "The  University  of  Michigan  has  heretofore  re- 
ceived high  commendation  from  the  ministry  of  our  church, 
but  we  are  sorry  to  say  that  many  of  its  friends  have  their 
fears  that  its  moral  and  religious  condition  is  such  as  great- 
ly to  impair  its  usefulness.  It  is  for  the  future  to  show 
whether  it  shall  be  a  safe  abode  for  the  sons  of  Christian 
parents  during  the  most  important  period  of  their  educa- 
tion. We  are  compelled  to  fear  that  it  is  so  defective  in 
those  moral  and  religious  restraints  and  influences  which 
ought  always  to  be  thrown  around  students  of  literary  in- 


2o8  ATTACK  UPON  THE  UNIVERSITY 

stitutions,  that  it  can  not  be  patronized  by  our  citizens  with- 
out imminent  peril  to  the  moral  and  religious  character  of 
those  youths  who  may  be  sent  there  for  instruction,  and 
until  there  is  a  decided  improvement  in  this  respect,  we  must 
say  to  the  Christian  public,  beware!" 

This  was  the  most  serious  direct  and  pubHc  attack  ever 
made  upon  the  university  touching  the  question  of  moral 
and  religious  influence.  Coming  from  such  a  source  it 
could  not,  at  that  time,  have  been  safely  ignored.  The  re- 
gents requested  the  President  and  faculties  to  report  to 
them,  as  far  as  practicable,  "the  moral  conduct  of  the  stu- 
dents attending  the  university,  and  the  means  employed  to 
impress  upon  them  sound  moral  and  religious  principles." 

A  report  was  accordingly  made,  drawn  up  with  evident 
care,  temperate  in  its  language,  and  excellent  in  its  spirit. 
This  document  is  of  special  historic  interest  as  indicating 
the  peculiarly  sensitive  state  of  the  public  mind,  at  that  time, 
upon  the  religious  question,  and  also  the  means  then  em- 
ployed to  inculcate  moral  and  religious  principles.  Among 
other  things,  it  was  stated  that,  as  at  other  public  education- 
al institutions  of  the  State,  *'the  Scriptures  were  read  and 
prayers  were  offered  every  morning  in  the  chapel  of  the 
University,  that  several  series  of  public  lectures  had  been 
given  Sunday  afternoons  on  the  evidences  of  the  Christian 
religion,  and  that  weekly  religious  meetings  were  held 
among  the  students."* 

While  the  "Branches"  of  the  University  were  in  existence, 
it  had  been  a  rule  that  the  exercises  of  each  day  should  be 
opened  "with  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  and  prayer," 


*Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  for  1857. 


ATTACK   FROM   ANOTHER   QUARTER  209 

and  students  were  required  to  be  present  unless  excused  at 
the  request  of  their  parents.  Generally  the  rules  in  relation 
to  religious  exercises  at  the  State  institutions  were  essen- 
tially the  same  as  those  in  the  denominational  schools. 

Occasionally  attacks  have  been  made  upon  the  State 
schools  from  a  different  quarter.  They  have  been  charged 
with  teaching  too  much  religion  and  exerting  an  influence 
too  positively  Christian.  About  the  year  1873  a  legislative 
committee  investigated  the  condition  of  religious  affairs  at 
the  University,  in  respect  to  such  a  charge,  but  found  no 
occasion  for  alarm  or  criticism.  Changed  conditions  and 
doubts  as  to  the  real  value  of  required  attendance  upon  cer- 
tain formal  "exercises"  of  a  character  more  or  less  religious 
and  ethical,  have  gradually  led  to  the  abandonment  of  such 
required  attendance  in  most  State  institutions,  and  in  some 
cases  to  the  practical  abandonment  of  these  exercises  alto- 
gether. Touching  the  wisdom  of  this  course  a  difference 
of  opinion  exists  among  men  equally  desirous  that  the  in- 
fluence of  a  school  shall  be  decidedly  on  the  side  of  sound 
morality  and  of  practical  religion.  The  growth  and  activity 
of  voluntary  organizations,  such  as  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  in 
which  students  and  teachers  can,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
cooperate,  may  have  fully  supplied  the  place  of  the  old-time 
official  requirements.  At  any  rate  the  experiment  will  have 
to  be  tried. 

The  history  of  ''the  religious  question"  in  connection  with 
the  elementary  and  secondary  public  schools  of  the  State 
must  be  briefly  considered.  Some  of  the  conditions  in  these 
schools  were  similar  to  those  in  the  older  States ;  other  con- 
ditions were  very  different.  The  population  was  less  hom- 
ogeneous, and  the  diversity  of  opinions  was,  if  possible,  even 


2IO  ACTION  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  SAWYER 

greater.  No  one  sect  had  acquired,  as  in  Massachusetts, 
a  sort  of  prescriptive  and  traditional  claim  to  an  exclusive 
or  at  least  a  predominant  influence  in  the  management  of 
the  public  schools.  The  claims  of  one  sect  were  as  valid 
as  those  of  any  other.  There  was  no  authoratative  dead 
past  to  fetter  the  free  activity  of  the  living  present.  Old 
beliefs,  old  modes  of  thought,  old  habits  of  action,  old 
school  books,  and  old  modes  of  management  were  all  here, 
but  they  were  inextricably  intermingled.  The  immediate 
need  was  a  spirit  of  mutual  respect ;  a  readiness  to  yield  as 
well  as  to  demand,  a  full  recognition  of  the  great  law  of 
doing  as  one  would  be  done  by.  The  fact  that  a  large  ma- 
jority of  the  people  had  not  passed  the  period  of  middle 
life  made  all  this  easier. 

The  opinions  and  recommendations  of  Superintendent 
Pierce  have  already  been  referred  to.  He  was  succeeded  in 
1 84 1  by  Franklin  Sawyer  who  held  the  superintendency  two 
years.  Some  premonitions  of  a  possible  storm  were  seen 
and  heard  here  and  there,  and  Mr.  Sawyer  thought  it  wise 
to  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  actual  condition  of 
affairs  and  with  the  sentiments  of  the  people  throughout  the 
State.  In  a  circular  issued  in  1841,  he  asked  these,  among 
other  questions,  of  the  school  directors:  "Is  religious  in- 
struction inculcated  in  your  school?  If  so,  what  kind,  sec- 
tarian or  otherwise?  What  religious  books  are  used?"  In 
referring  to  the  replies  received,  Mr.  Sawyer  says :  "While 
a  certain  amount  of  religious  instruction  is  encouraged  in 
many  schools,  sectarianism  finds  no  admission.  This  re- 
mark, it  is  believed,  can  be  made  without  an  exception ;  at 
least  such  is  the  tone  of  all  the  reports  which  have  reached 
this  office.     The   extreme   sensitiveness  on  this  point,   as 


REPORTS  FROM  SCHOOL  INSPECTORS  211 

betrayed  in  the  numerous  replies,  argues  a  healthy  state  of 
public  opinion.  *  *  *  *  ^  school  without  moral  instruc- 
tion, lacks  the  essentials  of  a  right  education,  as  evidently 
the  school  open  to  sectarianism  exceeds  them.  No  system 
can  be  perfect  that  is  not  based  upon  the  great  practical  re- 
quisites of  Christianity — "Do  unto  others  as  you  would 
have  others  do  unto  you,  and  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself." 
At  a  little  later  period  Mr.  Sawyer  propounded  these  in- 
quiries to  the  school  inspectors  of  the  State :  "To  what  ex- 
tent are  morals  inculcated  in  the  schools?  Where  would 
you  draw  the  line  between  moral  training  and  religious  cul- 
ture, so  as  to  avoid  the  evil  of  sectarianism,  and  at  the  same 
time  give  to  the  youthful  heart  a  right  direction?"  The 
Superintendent  quoted  freely  in  his  report  from  the  answers 
received,  and  occasionally  commented  upon  them  in  his  own 
peculiar  and  entertaining  style.  It  was  universally  agreed 
that  sectarianism  should  not  be  tolerated,  but  evidently  there 
was  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  what  constituted  sectarian- 
ism. Mr.  Sawyer  wrote :  "One  thinks  that  morality  should 
be  inculcated,"  and  that  "to  love  and  serve  God  should  be 
taught  both  by  precept  and  example ;  but  in  order  to  avoid 
sectarianism,  no  portion  of  the  teacher's  time  should  be  de- 
voted to  prayer  or  exhortation  while  engaged  in  school." 
Another,  "that  the  best  way  to  avoid  the  evil  is,  to  exclude 
sectarian  books  from  school."  A  third,  "that  it  may  be  done 
by  teaching  the  precepts  of  the  Bible,  and  leaving  the  pupil 
mostly  to  his  own  understanding  of  them,  without  comment 
by  the  teachers."  A  fourth  recommends  a  "general  rever- 
ence for  the  Supreme  Being."  A  fifth  would  have  "the 
great  moral  law  of  God  brought  before  the  children,  and 
have  them  early  taught  that  the  Bible  is  of  divine  revelation, 


212  OPINIONS  OF  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

and  that,  if  its  principles  are  carried  out  by  us,  it  is  more  con- 
ducive to  our  happiness  and  the  happiness  of  others,  than 
any  other  rule  of  action."  A  sixth,  "would  never  meddle 
with  morals  and  religion,  but  teach  the  difference  between 
right  and  wrong,  by  reasoning  with  the  children."  A  sev- 
enth "would  keep  morals  and  religion  at  home  and  in  the 
Sabbath  school."  *  *  *  *  a  tenth  thinks  that  the  pious 
teacher  can  not  do  less  "than  to  exhort  his  pupils  to  observe 
the  Sabbath,  abstain  from  profane  language,  be  careful  al- 
ways to  speak  the  truth,  read  the  Bible,  regard  its  precepts, 
acknowledge  God  in  all  their  ways,  believing  He  will  direct 
their  steps,  and  likewise  have  a  portion  of  the  Word  of  God 
read  every  day  in  the  school,  and  a  prayer  offered  to  Him 
who  heareth  prayer  for  guidance  and  direction."  *  *  *  * 
A  twelfth  recommends  "the  ten  commandments  and  the 
sermon  on  the  mount."  A  thirteenth  would  have  the  teach- 
er avoid  sectarianism,  but  "present  to  his  scholars  the  lead- 
ing principles  of  God's  law  and  the  peculiar  characteristics 
of  the  plan  of  salvation  through  a  crucified  Redeemer,  and 
impress  upon  the  young  and  tender  mind  the  necessity  of 
repentance  and  faith,  and  becoming  reconciled  to  God  with- 
out delay."  A  fourteenth,  while  expressing  his  opposition 
to  sectarianism,  is  not  "settled  how  far  Universalists  and 
Infidels  should  be  regarded."  These  excerpts  are  interest- 
ing as  indicating  the  opinions  of  the  ordinary  men  in  the 
school  districts  at  that  time.  Mr.  Sawyer  says  in  conclu- 
sion :  "In  excluding  sectarianism  from  all  schools  supported 
by  the  public  purse  the  cardinal  virtues  must  not  be  banish- 
ed ;  without  virtue  no  system  of  instruction  can  perfect  its 
work.  If  the  teacher  is  fit  to  be  placed  over  a  school,  he 
will,  by  precept  and  by  his  own  exemplary  conduct,  teach 


VIEWS  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  COMSTOCK       213 

all  that  the  most  rigid  morality  can  ask.  More  than  this 
would  be  trenching  on  forbidden  ground;  less  would  be 
conclusive  evidence  of  unfitness  for  his  place." 

Oliver  C.  Comstock  who  became  Superintendent  in  1843, 
in  speaking  of  subjects  to  be  taught  and  the  books  to  be  used 
in  the  public  schools,  said :  "It  will  be  seen  that  the  under- 
signed has  placed  on  the  lists  of  books  to  be  used  in  the  pri- 
mary schools,  the  New  Testament  and  the  Bible  Reader,  a 
book  made  up  of  selections  from  the  Bible.  He,  moreover, 
thinks  that  the  Bible  should  be  daily  and  reverently  read  in 
the  school  by  the  teacher.  This  exercise  may  be  accompan- 
ied with  prayer,  or  this  may  be  omitted,  according  as  the 
character  of  the  teacher  and  his  sense  of  duty  shall  indicate. 
In  this  recommendation,  he  is  only  walking  in  the  footsteps 
of  multitudes  of  the  most  distinguished  teachers  of  schools, 
and  supervisors  of  education  in  Europe  and  America.  Since 
however,  the  course  here  recommended,  has  been  opposed, 
and  has  evoked  much  earnest  discussion,  he  may  be  indulged 
in  giving  it  more  than  a  mere  passing  notice."  Mr.  Com- 
stock then  goes  on,  at  considerable  length,  to  give  his  rea- 
sons for  recommending  the  daily  use  of  the  Bible  in  the 
schools.  He  believed  "all  consistent  moral  and  religious 
character  depended  upon  the  instruction  derived  from  the 
Bible  and  upon  the  influence  of  that  book.  He  believed 
that  the  God  of  the  Bible  honored  those  who  regarded  his 
laws,  and  that  He  commanded  the  teaching  of  its  precepts 
diligently  to  the  young;  that  children  should  be  educated 
in  the  nurture  and  admonition  of  the  Lord."  He  regarded 
the  style  of  the  Bible,  its  language  as  unparalleled  in  its 
purity,  simplicity  and  majesty.  *Tn  didactic  argumentation, 
forensic  eloquence,  and  sublime  poetry  it  is  superlatively 


214  CONDITIONS  IN  DETROIT 

excellent.  In  whatever  light,  therefore,  we  consider  the 
Bible,  whether  for  its  historic  information,  its  doctrinal  pre- 
cepts, or  for  the  unrivalled  excellency  of  its  composition, 
we  perceive  its  commanding  claims  on  the  serious  and  habit- 
ual attention  of  teachers  and  scholars." 

The  first  serious  conflict  upon  this  subject  occurred  in  the 
City  of  Detroit.  In  a  brief  sketch  of  the  public  schools  of 
that  city,  written  by  D.  Bethune  Duflield  and  published  in 
the  State  Superintendent's  report  for  1851,  it  is  said:  ''About 
three  years  after  the  schools  were  fairly  started,  and  just 
as  they  commenced  taking  form  and  shape,  the  board  were 
called  to  encounter  a  storm  which  came  near  wrecking  the 
whole  system,  and  which,  but  for  the  prudent  and  temperate 
management  of  those  then  entrusted  with  the  interests  of 
the  schools,  must  necessarily  have  resulted  most  disastrously 
to  the  permanent  educational  interests  of  our  city.  I  refer 
to  our  first  encounter  with  that  perplexing,  yet  all  important 
subject,  the  proper  introduction  of  the  Bible  into  the  public 
schools."  The  contest  continued  with  great  vigor  and  with 
not  a  little  acrimony  for  several  months.  "The  religious 
feeling  of  the  citizens  was  thoroughly  aroused  in  reference 
to  the  matter,  and  the  lines  openly  drawn  between  Protest- 
ants and  Catholics.  Petitions  with  innumerable  names 
poured  in  upon  the  board,  some  asking  positively  for  the 
introduction  of  the  Bible  as  a  text-book  in  the  schools,  and 
others  soliciting  the  very  contrary,  and  insisting  upon  its 
total  exclusion.  So  high  did  the  excitement  rise  that  many 
citizens  on  both  sides  of  the  question  did  not  hesitate  openly 
to  declare,  that  unless  their  particular  views  were  carried  out 
in  this  matter,  they  would  gladly  see  the  entire  school  system 
broken  up  and  swept  away  from  our  city.     After  this  in- 


ACTION  OF  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  215 

temperate  zeal  of  many  had  in  a  measure  abated,  the  board 
proceeded  to  the  discharge  of  their  duty  by  calmly  acting 
on  the  question,  and  settled  the  whole  difficulty  by  the  adop- 
tion of  the  following  resolutions : 

1.  "That  it  is  the  opinion  of  this  board  that  there  is 
nothing  in  their  rules  and  by-laws  at  all  conflicting  with  the 
right  of  any  teacher  in  the  employment  of  this  board,  to 
open  his  or  her  school  by  reading,  without  note  or  comment, 
from  any  version  of  the  Bible  they  may  choose,  either  Cath- 
olic or  Protestant. 

2,  That  any  teacher  who  shall  in  any  way  note,  com- 
ment, or  remark  in  his  or  her  school,  upon  passages  of 
Scripture,  shall  be  removed  from  his  or  her  school,  upon 
the  proof  thereof  being  made  to  the  committee  of  his  or 
her  school — the  decision  of  said  committee  being  subject, 
however,  to  review  by  the  board.  Thus  was  this  threaten- 
ing peril  avoided,  the  influence  of  the  Bible  fully  preserved 
in  the  schools,  and  the  school  system  itself  saved  from  the 
ruin  which  seemed  at  first  impending  over  it." 

Referring  to  this  excitement  in  Detroit,  Dr.  E.  O.  Haven, 
in  his  autobiography,  writes  :  "The  University  of  Michigan, 
being  at  the  head  of  the  educational  system  of  the  State, 
naturally  felt  the  influence  of  the  excitement,  and  I,  there- 
fore, delivered  a  discourse  on  the  subject  in  Ann  Arbor,  in 
which  I  took  the  ground,  now  so  commonly  occupied,  that 
the  State  had  no  right  to  teach  religion  by  compulsion  in 
the  public  schools.  The  discourse  attempted  to  show  that 
public  schools  should  be  unsectarian  and  teach  no  religious 
doctrine  seriously  objected  to  by  the  parents  of  any  of  its 
pupils.  It  was  printed  in  full  by  the  papers,  and  was  said 
much  to  allay  the  excitement." 


2i6     DEMAND  FOR  DIVISION  OF  SCHOOL  FUNDS 

In  1853  an  effort,  similar  to  the  one  in  New  York,  was 
made  to  secure  a  division  of  the  proceeds  of  the  primary 
school  fund  among  the  various  religious  bodies  to  be  used 
for  the  support  of  parochial  schools.  A  memorial  was  ad- 
dressed to  the  Legislature  and  all  possible  influence  was 
exerted  to  accomplish  the  desired  purpose.  The  memorial 
stated  that  the  signers,  ''have  labored,  and  are  still  laboring, 
under  grievances  to  which  neither  justice  nor  patriotism 
required  longer  submission."  They  were  taxed  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools  which  they  could  not  conscientiously  allow 
their  children  to  attend.  Consequently,  in  addition  to  the 
taxes  which  they  paid  to  support  the  public  schools,  they 
were  obliged  to  tax  themselves  for  the  education  of  their 
own  children  in  other  schools.  The  idea  which  these  peti- 
tioners entertained  of  free  schools  was  peculiar  and  worthy 
of  note.  They  said:  ''Schools  can  be  free  only  when  the 
business  of  school  teaching  be  placed  on  the  same  footing 
as  the  other  learned  professions;  when  all  may  teach  who 
will,  their  success  depending,  as  in  other  cases,  on  their  fit- 
ness for  their  profession,  and  the  satisfaction  they  may  ren- 
der to  the  public ;  that  in  all  cases  the  parent  be  left  free  to 
choose  the  teacher  to  whom  he  will  entrust  the  education  of 
his  child,  as  he  is  to  choose  his  physician,  his  lawyer,  etc. ; 
that  each  person  teaching  any  public  school  in  the  State 
should  be  entitled  to  draw  from  the  public  school  fund,  such 
sums  as  the  law  might  provide,  for  every  child  so  taught, 
by  the  month,  quarter,  or  otherwise,  on  producing  such  evi- 
dence as  the  law  might  require  in  such  cases.  Schools  es- 
tablished on  such  principles  are  what  your  petitioners  under- 
stand by  free  schools." 

A  bill  was  introduced  into  both  branches  of  the  Legisla- 


REPORTS  IN  THE  LEGISLATURE  217 

titre  providing  for  such  division  of  the  funds,  and  referred 
to  the  proper  committees.  The  Senate  committee  agreed 
upon  a  report,  and  set  forth  their  reasons  for  rejecting  the 
bill.  The  House  committee  failed  to  agree,  and  two  reports 
were  presented,  the  majority  report  being  adverse  to  the 
prayer  of  the  memorialists.  The  report  of  the  minority 
gave,  in  extended  form,  considerations  and  arguments  which 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  bill  should  be  enacted  into  a 
law. 

The  general  spirit  of  this  document  may  be  estimated 
from  a  few  excerpts,  all  that  space  will  allow.  It  was  said : 
"Without  in  any  respect  entering  into  any  questions,  in  eith- 
er doctrine  or  manners,  between  the  members  of  the  various 
religious  denominations,  and  between  them  all  and  those 
who  have  no  religion,  the  fact  can  not  be  concealed  that  the 
doctrines  and  religious  ceremonies  of  the  many  Protestant 
denominations  are  held  by  the  Catholic  church  to  be  utterly 
subversive  of  morals,  and  utterly  damning  to  the  soul.  And 
thcfse  skeptics,  neither  few  nor  without  commanding  posi- 
tion in  society,  look  upon  all  these  systems  of  religion  as 
mere  superstitions,  the  relics  of  a  darker  age;  while  they 
are  equally  abhorred  by  the  more  devout  of  all 
religious  denominations.  Since  these  differences  must 
run  through  the  whole  system  of  education,  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  educate  the  children  of  such  differing  parents 
together  without  doing  great  wrong  to  some  or  all  of  them." 
The  report  admitted  that  some  difficulties  would  be  met  in 
carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  bill  in  sparsely  populated 
portions  of  the  State,  but  these  might  be  overcome  as  read- 
ily as  other  difficulties  incident  to  a  new  country.  The  bill 
did  not  command  a  large  support,  and  no  serious  subsequent 


^u^ 


^^fV£RSir 


2i8        DISCUSSIONS  IN  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATION 

effort  has  been  made  in  that  direction. 

Several  very  earnest  and  protracted  discussions  of  the 
question  of  the  use  of  the  Bible  in  the  schools  and  of  reli- 
gious instruction  took  place  in  the  meetings  of  the  State 
Teachers'  Association.  At  a  meeting  in  1854  in  Detroit 
a  committee  made  an  extended  report  closing  with  a  series 
of  resolutions  characterized  more  by  partisan  zeal  than  by 
practical  wisdom.  After  a  short  debate  the  whole  matter 
was  referred  to  another  committee  instructed  to  report  at 
the  next  meeting  of  the  association  to  be  held  in  August  of 
the  same  year  at  Marshall.  The  importance  attached  to 
the  subject  is  indicated  by  the  composition  of  this  commit- 
tee, which  consisted  of  Hon.  Ira  Mayhew,  the  Superintend- 
ent of  Public  Instruction ;  Dr.  E.  O.  Haven  of  the  Univer- 
sity ;  Principal  A.  S.  Welch  and  Prof.  J.  F.  Gary  of  the  nor- 
mal school ;  and  Rev.  C.  A.  Leach.  The  committee  were 
unable  to  agree  and  two  able  reports  were  presented,  one  by 
Dr.  Haven,  the  other  by  Prof.  Welch. 

Dr.  Haven  took  the  ground  that  no  religious  instruction 
of  any  kind  should  be  given  in  the  State  schools,  and  that 
the  Bible  should  not  be  read  if  a  single  resident  of  a  district 
objected,  nor  should  prayer  be  offered,  since  religion  might 
be  taught  indirectly  by  prayers.  As  already  indicated,  the 
controversy,  at  that  time,  was  largely  between  the  zealous 
Catholics  and  the  equally  zealous  Protestants. 

Prof.  Welch's  report  favored  the  use  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
giving  of  instruction  ''in  those  religious  principles  upon 
which  the  government  of  the  State  was  founded." 

The  discussion  upon  the  reports  was  long,  vigorous,  and 
at  times  excited.  Among  those  participating  in  the  debate, 
were  Hon.  Levi  Bishop  of  Detroit,  and  J.  VanArman,  Esq., 


ANOTHER  DISCUSSION  219 

a  prominent  lawyer  of  Marshall,  both  of  whom  strongly 
advocated  the  use  of  the  Bible.  Dr.  Haven  was  the  princi- 
pal speaker  upon  the  other  side,  supported  by  Rev.  Mr. 
Trowbridge  of  Marshall.  It  was  remarked  at  the  time  that 
the  attorneys,  though  not  professedly  religious  men,  advo- 
cated the  use  of  the  Bible,  while  several  of  the  distinguished 
clergymen  present  opposed  such  use  under  existing  condi- 
tions. A  tolerably  full  report  of  this  discussion  may  be 
found  in  Vol.  I,  of  the  Michigan  Journal  of  Education. 

A  second  somewhat  extended  debate  occurred  at  the 
meeting  at  Pontiac  in  1859,  less  excited  than  the  one  in 
1854,  but  still  very  earnest.  Among  the  speakers  was  Hon. 
J.  M.  Gregory,  then  Superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
In  the  course  of  his  remarks  he  said :  "No  danger  threat- 
ens the  common  school  system  so  much  as  that  of  not  being 
able  to  retain  there  sufficient  moral  influence  to  render  them 
safe  resorts  for  our  children.  The  schools  are  not  now  im- 
moral, but  there  is  a  necessity  for  a  higher  moral  training; 
the  moral  training  of  the  school  should  be  higher  than  that 
of  the  ordinary  family  or  the  street.  It  is  feared  that  we 
can  not  introduce  moral  instruction  enough  to  save  them. 
The  question  of  the  right  of  religious  instruction  in  the 
schools  can  not  be  easily  settled,  nor  is  agitation  made  pro- 
ductive of  any  good.  There  is  little  danger  of  teaching  sec- 
tarianism. A  danger  a  hundred  fold  greater  is,  we  shall 
injure  the  schools  by  attempting  to  keep  religious  instruc- 
tion out  of  them.  There  can  be  no  neutrality.  We  must 
either  gather  in  or  scatter  abroad.  If  we  want  to  keep  reli- 
gion out  of  the  schools,  we  must  keep  religious  men  out  of 
them.  He  wished  to  direct  public  attention  away  from  the 
remote  danger  of  sectarianism  to  the  immediate,  practical, 


220  CONTINUED  DISCUSSION 

and  urgent  one,  that  the  school  will  be  deprived  of  all  re- 
ligion." 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  debate  it  was  resolved  unanimous- 
ly: "That  we  believe  the  education  of  the  moral  faculties 
to  be  one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  instruction — that 
upon  tliis  education  rests  the  happiness  and  prosperity  of 
the  State;  and  we  recommend  the  daily  reading  of  the 
Bible  in  our  public  schools." 

This  topic  came  before  the  association  once  more  at  Sagi- 
naw in  December,  1869.  The  immediate  occasion  of  the 
discussion  was  an  excited  state  of  feeling  produced  by  the 
then  recent  action  of  the  school  board  of  Cincinnati  embod- 
ied in  the  resolution:  "That  religious  instruction  and  the 
reading  of  religious  books,  including  the  Holy  Bible,  are 
prohibited  in  the  common  schools  of  Cincinnati,  it  being 
the  true  object  and  intent  of  this  rule  to  allow  the  children 
of  the  parents  of  all  sects  and  opinions  in  matters  of  faith 
and  worship,  to  enjoy  alike  the  benefits  of  the  common  school 
fund." 

Prof.  Joseph  Estabrook  delivered  a  carefully  prepared  ad- 
dress, and  brief  but  earnest  remarks  were  made  by  several 
of  the  leading  members  of  the  association,  generally  favor- 
ing the  use  of  the  Bible  in  the  schools. 

Among  other  things  bearing  upon  the  question,  Mr.  Esta- 
brook said :  "The  question  now  forced  upon  our  considera- 
tion is  not  whether  the  Bible  shall  be  introduced  into  our 
public  schools ;  but,  being  already  in  them,  whether  it  shall 
be  continued  or  excluded.  There  is  a  wide  and  important 
difference  between  the  two  questions.  The  Bible  in  our 
schools  is  the  symbolical  recognition  of  our  Christianity. 
The  removal  of  it  announces  a  national  religious  change. 


VIEWS  OF  PROFESSOR  ESTABROOK  221 

*  *  *  *  Christianity  has  entwined  itself  around  our 
very  national  life ;  it  has  embedded  itself  into  our  literature 
and  like  an  atmosphere  pervades  all  our  institutions,  so  that 
to  remove  it  from  them  were  to  lay  the  axe  at  the  very  root 
of  our  national  being.  The  reason  why  this  Bible  has  had 
a  place  upon  the  desks  of  our  public  schools  is  because  it 
has  been  recognized  as  the  text-book  of  American  civiliza- 
tion— the  corner-stone  on  which  our  fathers  built — ^the  foun- 
tain of  a  conservative,  healing,  purifying  influence  in  our 
commonwealth.  The  exclusion  of  the  Bible  is  only  the  first 
step  in  the  fearful* descent  to  blank  godlessness,  a  total  di- 
vorce from  our  systems  of  instruction  of  every  thought  that 
connects  the  finite  with  the  infinite,  and  a  mortal  with  his 
immortal  destiny.  *  *  h«  *  What  is  the  significance  of 
this  movement?  Is  the  Bible  a  dangerous  book  to  the  youth 
of  our  country?  Does  it  inculcate  an  impure  or  defective 
morality?"  These  extrax^ts  indicate  the  view  and  feelings 
of  a  very  large  part  of  the  most  prominent  educators  of  that 
period.  At  the  close  of  the  discussion  the  following  resolu- 
tion was  adopted  without  dissent :  "That  we  believe  the 
Bible  should  not  be  excluded  from  our  public  schools,  and 
that  such  exclusion  would  not,  in  our  opinion,  render  the 
schools  more  acceptable  to  any  class  of  our  citizens." 

No  extended  debates  upon  the  religious  question,  or  upon 
the  use  of  the  Bible  in  the  schools  has  taken  place  in  the 
meetings  of  the  association  during  recent  years.  But  the 
importance  of  moral  instruction  and  training  has  been  fre- 
quently urged  in  papers  and  addresses. 

The  conviction  is  growing  in  the  minds  of  most  thought- 
ful men  and.  women  that  the  schools  generally  are  not  doing 
all  that  is  desirable  in  the  way  of  ethical  instruction  and 


222  QUESTION  NOT  SETTLED 

training;  but  what  method  shall  be  adopted  to  secure  such 
instruction  and  training  has  not  yet  been  determined.  The 
question  of  providing  for  teaching  morals  and  of  the  use 
of  the  Bible,  and  of  opening  exercises  of  a  semi-religious 
character  in  the  schools,  is  wisely  left  to  be  determined  by 
local  school  officials,  or  by  the  teachers,  in  view  of  local  con- 
ditions and  sentiment.  The  natural  result  is  that  great  di- 
versity of  usage  is  found  in  the  State,  and  in  many  cases  no 
appreciable  moral  or  religious  influence  is  exerted  by  the 
schools.  This  is  to  be  regretted ;  but  it  is  not  easy,  with 
existing  public  sentiment,  to  prescribe  a  remedy  which  may 
not  prove  worse  than  the  evil.  Some  practical  solution  of 
this  perplexing  problem  may  be  hoped  for  in  the  not  very 
remote  future. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

SUPERINTENDENT     OF     PUBLIC     INSTRUCTION,     AND 
STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 

Michigan  was  the  first  of  the  states  to  make  a  superin- 
tendent of  pubHc  instruction  a  constitutional  officer.  Legis- 
lative enactments  had  previously  created  such  an  officer  in 
two  or  three  cases.  The  constitution  of  1835  provided  for 
a  superintendent,  but  left  his  powers  and  duties  to  be  deter- 
mined entirely  by  law.  The  constitution  of  1850  only  added 
the  provision  that  he  should  have  "the  general  supervision 
of  public  instruction."  Superintendent  Shearman,  in  1852, 
wrote:  "The  framers  of  the  constitution  looked  to  the 
superintendent  for  a  general  supervision,  not  only  of  pri- 
mary schools,  but  of  the  university,  colleges,  academies, 
high  schools,  and  all  schools  established  throughout  the 
state.  True,  the  immediate  government  of  these  institu- 
tions was  to  be  confided  to  the  management  and  control  of 
local  officers,  adapted  to  the  character  and  wants  of  each, 
but  over  all,  as  representing  the  guardian  watchfulness  and 
interest  of  the  State,  was  intended  to  be  the  general  officer 
of  Public  Instruction,  accumulating  all  the  material  of  this 
congregated  effort,  and  laying  it,  in  embodied  form,  before 
the  tribunal  of  the  people  and  their  legislatures ;  devising 
and  maturing  plans  for  improvement;  requiring  full  infor- 
mation in  every  particular  relating  to  the  annual  condition 
and  progress  of  all  these  institutions;  impressing  the  im- 

223 


224  DUTIES  OF  THE  SUPERINTENDENT 

portance  of  education  by  public  lectures  and  personal  visi- 
tations in  the  various  counties  and  districts;  infusing  life 
and  zeal,  and  spreading  information  among  all ;  and  from 
advantages  of  position  in  acquiring  knowledge,  ensuring 
progression  in  all  that  relates  to  educational,  intellectual,  and 
moral  achievement."  It  is  probable  that  the  earliest  State 
superintendents  had  somewhat  exalted  ideas  in  relation  to 
the  dignity  and  prerogatives  of  their  office.  If  so,  evidently 
the  legislative  body,  whose  province  it  was  to  determine  the 
extent  of  their  powers  and  to  prescribe  their  duties,  labored 
under  no  delusion  in  the  matter.  The  educational  legis- 
lation of  the  first  two  decades  evinces  a  constant  disposition 
on  the  part  of  the  legisators  to  reserve  to  themselves  the 
ultimate  decision,  as  far  as  possible,  of  every  important 
question. 

The  first  duties  imposed  upon  the  superintendent  were 
necessarily  of  a  temporary  nature  and  related  chiefly  to  the 
organization  of  the  school  system.  These  were  indicated 
in  chapter  four.  After  the  organization  of  the  system,  until 
the  establishment  of  the  Land  Office  in  1843,  the  time  and 
attention  of  the  superintendent  were  devoted  mainly  to  the 
care  of  the  lands  donated  to  the  State  for  educational  pur- 
poses and  to  the  management  of  the  funds  derived  from  the 
sale  of  these  lands.  As  this  was  a  temporary  condition  of 
affairs,  no  details  of  the  character  of  the  work  done  need 
be  given.  The  duties  were  altogether  inappropriate  to  an 
officer  charged  with  ''the  general  supervision  of  public  in- 
struction." Superintendent  Shearman  was  correct  in  stat- 
ing that  "The  disposition  of  lands  and  the  management  of 
funas  granted  for  the  support  of  education"  were  not  within 
the  original  purpose  of  the  superintendency. 


OUTLINE  OF  DUTIES  225 

The  plan  of  extending  the  supervising  authority  of  the 
superintendent  over  the  University,  although  well  meant 
and  not  inconsistent  with  a  State  system  of  education  em- 
bracing all  grades  of  schools,  resulted  in  friction,  and  in 
more  or  less  serious  conflicts  of  authority.  Superintendent 
Pierce's  connection  with  the  management  of  the  affairs  of 
the  University  saved  that  institution,  at  one  period,  from  a 
great,  if  not  irreparable,  disaster.  Nevertheless,  the  re- 
gents naturally  became  restive  under  the  restraint  which 
his  cooordinate  authority  imposed,  and  the  University  was 
at  an  early  period,  made  exempt  from  the  official  supervis- 
ion of  the  superintendent.  That  officer  was  thenceforth  free 
to  devote  himself  to  the  development  and  improvement  of 
primary  and  secondary  education  in  the  State. 

The  revised  statutes  which  followed  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution  of  1850,  made  the  superintendent's  powers  and 
duties  essentially  the  following: 

1.  To  prepare  and  transmit  to  the  Legislature,  through 
the  governor,  an  annual  report  containing  a  statement  of 
the  condition  of  all  the  educational  institutions  of  the  State ; 
an  account  of  the  expenditures  of  school  money;  plans  for 
the  improvement  of  the  educational  system  and  the  manage- 
ment of  the  educational  funds;  and  such  other  matters  re- 
lating to  his  office  and  to  education  as  he  deemed  expedient. 

2.  To  make  abstracts  of  the  reports  of  school  officers; 
to  cause  the  school  laws  to  be  printed  and  distributed,  with 
forms  necessary  for  the  transaction  of  school  business,  and 
instructions  to  school  officers  relative  to  the  organization 
and  management  of  schools  and  relative  to  the  studies  to 
be  pursued  in  them ;  to  annex  to  the  laws  a  list  .of  books 
best  adapted  for  use  in  the  primary  schools,  and  also  a  list 


226  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

suitable  for  township  libraries,  with  rules  for  the  manage- 
ment of  libraries. 

3.  To  apportion  annually  to  the  cities  and  townships  the 
income  of  the  primary  school  fund,  and  to  make  all  necessary 
arrangements  for  its  proper  distribution.  These  were,  in 
substance,  all  the  duties  imposed  upon  the  highest  education- 
al officer  of  the  State.  They  were  mainly  clerical,  and  in- 
volved only  very  limited  authority.  The  functions  of  the 
superintendency  were,  at  this  time,  reduced  to  the  lowest 
terms;  from  this  point  we  shall  anticipate  an  increase  in 
powers  and  responsibilities. 

The  legislative  acts  of  1849  establishing  a  normal  school, 
created  a  Board  of  Education  of  three  members,  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  and 
with  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  the  Lieu- 
tenant Governor,  ex-officio  members,  the  superintendent  be- 
ing secretary  of  the  board.  The  consolidated  act  of  the  next 
year  added  the  State  Treasurer  who  was  also  to  be  the 
treasurer  of  the  board.  This  was  the  first  permanent  addi- 
tion to  the  duties  of  the  superintendent,  and  opened  to  him 
a  wide  field  of  labor  entirely  germane  to  the  original  pur- 
pose of  his  office. 

The  convention  of  1850  made  the  Board  of  Education  a 
constitutional  body,  its  members  being  elected  by  the  people 
for  a  term  of  six  years.  The  superintendent  was  continued 
as  a  member  and  secretary,  thus,  in  effect,  being  made  the 
executive  officer  of  the  board.  The  only  original  function 
of  the  board  was  to  locate,  organize,  and  control  the  normal 
school.  Other  duties  might  be  prescribed  by  law,  and  all 
added  duties  increased  by  so  much  the  sphere  of  labor  and 
influence  open  to  the  superintendent. 


REPORT  ON  THE  SUPERINTENDENCY  22J 

Until  1 85 1,  the  office  of  the  superintendent  had  been  mi- 
gratory, being  usually  at  his  residence  wherever  that  hap- 
pened to  be.  He  had  not,  except  in  special  cases,  been 
authorized  to  employ  an  assistant  or  a  clerk.  Gradually  the 
official  and  necessary  un-official  correspondence  became  bur- 
densome, and  occupied  the  larger  part  of  his  time.  More- 
over the  compensation  was  very  meager,  the  salary  from 
1845  to  1849  being  only  $500  a  year.  The  esteem  in  which 
the  department  of  public  instruction  had  come  to  be  held 
may  be  inferred  from  the  report  of  a  legislative  committee 
at  the  session  of  1850.  The  report  said :  "The  department 
of  public  instruction  ought  to  be  regarded  as  second  to  none 
in  the  State  government.  The  duties  of  it  follow  every 
family  in  the  State  to  its  very  fireside,  and  invite  them  to 
an  interested  cooperation  in  labors  of  great  importance  to 
the  well-being  of  the  State.  The  performance  of  such  du- 
ties by  the  head  of  such  a  department,  demands  the  employ- 
ment of  talents  of  a  high  order  and  of  the  utmost  business 
activity.  The  report  of  the  superintendent  shows  a  diligent 
attention  to  a  great  variety  of  duties,  and  which  must  have 
involved  an  amount  of  labor  for  which  the  compensation 
allowed  by  law  is  a  most  inadequate  remuneration.  Your 
committee,  therefore,  take  leave  to  express  the  hope  that 
this  injustice  will  be  suffered  to  exist  no  longer;  but  that 
a  greater  efficiency  in  the  office  may  be  secured  by  placing 
it,  in  regard  to  compensation  of  the  incumbent,  on  the  same 
level  with  other  State  Officers,  whose  duties  are  neither  more 
important  nor  onerous.  It  is  hoped  that  the  head  of  a  de- 
partment so  important  as  this  will  no  longer  be  regarded  as 
a  clerkship  of  little  responsibility  and  but  inconsiderable 
labor,"     The  new  constitution,  adopted  in  that  year,  fixed 


228  NEEDS  OF  THE  SUPERINTENDENT 

the  annual  salary  of  the  superintendent,  and  several  of  the 
other  state  officers,  at  one  thousand  dollars,  thus  placing 
him,  in  this  respect,  on  a  level  with  his  associates. 

A  DEPUTY   SUPERINTENDENT. 

In  185 1,  by  an  act  of  the  Legislature,  the  State  Library 
room  was  appropriated  to  the  use  of  the  superintendent  as 
a  permanent  office,  and  the  librarian  was  directed  "to  per- 
form such  duties  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  required  by 
the  superintendent,  free  of  expense  to  the  State."  In  his 
report  for  1854  Superintendent  Shearman  stated  that  it 
was  indispensable  to  the  efficiency  of  his  labors  that  there 
should  be  (i)  an  office  at  Lansing  appropriated  solely  to 
his  use;  (2)  a  deputy  superintendent;  (3)  an  educational 
journal  under  his  supervision;  and  (4)  authority  to  settle 
questions  arising  under  the  school  laws.  As  Mr.  Shear- 
man was  just  closing  his  term  of  office,  his  recommendations 
could  not  be  attributed  to  personal  considerations  of  any 
kind.  The  recommendation  that  the  superintendent  should 
be  authorized  to  decide  questions  arising  under  the  school 
laws  had  been  made  by  Superintendent  Pierce,  and  had  been 
urgently  repeated  by  several  of  his  successors.  The  super- 
intendent in  New  York  had  been  clothed  with  such  author- 
ity, and,  with  proper  limitations,  it  seemed  desirable  that 
the  Superintendent  of  public  instruction  in  Michigan  should 
have  similar  power.  The  Legislature,  however,  for  some 
reason  difficult  to  understand,  has  persistently  refused  to 
grant  this. 

In  his  report  for  1855  and  '56  Superintendent  Mayhew 
explained,  at  considerable  length,  the  duties  required  of 
his  office,  the  difficulties  under  which  he  labored,  and  the 


VIEWS  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  MAYHEW  229 

urgent  necessity  for  suitable  accommodations  in  the  way 
of  rooms,  and  for  a  deputy.  In. closing  he  said:  "I  have 
endeavored  to  show  the  inadequacy  of  Legislative  provisions 
hitherto  made  in  this  State,  for  the  proper  development  ot 
the  Department  of  Education,  and  to  exhibit  some  of  the 
advantages  that  would  accrue  to  the  interests  of  Education 
generally  in  the  State,  and  to  all  our  Reformatory  and  Be- 
nevolent Institutions,  from  strengthening  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction,  and  giving  to  it  greater  scope  and  unity." 

Returning  to  this  matter  in  the  report  of  the  next  year, 
the  superintendent  said :  "It  will  be  a  proud  day  for  the 
State  of  Michigan,  when  the  Department  of  Public  Instruc-. 
tion  is  placed  upon  that  elevated  basis  in  regard  to  office 
labors  to  which  the  other  departments  of  the  State  govern- 
ment have  already  attained,  and  when  the  superintendent 
shall  be  more  free  to  engage  in  the  appropriate  functions  of 
his  office,  in  projecting  and  executing  plans  for  the  devel- 
opment and  increased  usefulness  to  the  State,  of  our,  in  many 
respects,  already  admirable  systems  of  public  instruction." 
A  brief  reference  to  the  condition  of  affairs  at  this  period 
appeared  necessary  to  a  right  understanding  of  the  somewhat 
slow  development  of  the  educational  department  of  the 
State. 

Finally  in  1859  an  act  was  passed  authorizing  the  super- 
intendent to  appoint  a  deputy  and  to  revoke  the  appointment 
at  his  discretion.  This,  with  the  gradual  increase  of  clerks, 
and  the  provision  of  good  office  rooms,  placed  the  depart- 
ment of  education  on  an  equal  footing  with  other  depart- 
ments of  the  government. 


230  THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 

the;  agricultural  college. 

The  act  establishing  the  Agricultural  College,  passed  in 
1855,  placed  that  institution  under  the  charge  of  the  Board 
of  Education,  thereby  greatly  increasing  the  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities of  the  Board  and  of  the  superintendent.  Much 
to  the  relief  of  the  Board,  the  control  and  supervision  of 
the  college  were  transferred,  in  1861,  to  the  State  Board 
of  Agriculture. 

In  their  report  for  that  year  the  Board  said :  "The  Board 
of  Education  repeatedly  recommended  that  the  affairs  of 
the  College  be  entrusted  to  a  State  Board  of  Agriculture  to 
be  organized  for  that  purpose.  *  *  *  *  jj^  yielding  the 
institution  to  its  new  guardians,  the  Board  of  Education 
congratulated  themselves  that  they  were  able  to  present  it 
not  only  virtually  free  from  debt,  but  also  with  a  settled  pol- 
icy, reached  after  years  of  experiment.  *  *  *  h^  With 
the  expression,  therefore,  of  their  high  regard  for  the  gen- 
tlemen of  the  Faculty  with  whom  their  intercourse  has  been 
so  invariably  pleasant,  and  of  their  hope  that  the  college, 
under  its  new  guardianship,  may  reap  an  ever  growing  suc- 
cess till  it  shall  meet  the  high  aims  and  expectations  of  its 
founders,  the  Board  of  Education  take  their  final  leave  of 
this  branch  of  their  trust." 

BOOKS  FOR  LIBRARIES. 

In  1859,  as  stated  in  another  connection,  the  Legislature 
made  it  the  duty  of  the  Board  of  Education  to  select  lists 
of  books  suitable  for  township  and  district  libraries,  and  to 
contract  with  responsible  parties  to  furnish  these  books  to 
school  officers  at  stipulated  prices.     For  some  years  this 


INSTITUTES  AND  TEACHERS'  CERTIFICATES    231 

duty  imposed  a  large  amount  of  labor  upon  the  Board,  and 
especially  upon  the  superintendent. 

te:ache:rs'  institutes. 

The  Institute  law  of  1855  imposed  upon  the  superintend- 
ent of  public  mstruction  the  duty  of  holding  a  number  of 
teachers'  institutes  each  year,  and  of  making  all  necessary 
provisions  to  render  these  of  practical  value  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  instructors  for  the  public  schools.  The  law  of  1877 
increased  very  largely  the  labors  of  the  superintendent  in 
this  direction;  and  subsequent  enactments  have' added  still 
further  requirements. 

STATE   teachers'    CERTIEICATES. 

The  law  of  1867,  creating  the  county  superintendency, 
authorized  the  State  superintendent  to  grant  certificates, 
on  any  evidence  of  fitness  satisfactory  to  himself,  licensing 
the  holders  to  teach  in  any  of  the  public  schools  of  the 
State,  the  certificate  being  valid  until  revoked  by  him.  This 
law  was  repealed  in  1875. 

In  1879  an  act  was  passed  empowering  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation to  grant  State  certificates  after  thorough  and  critical 
examination  of  candidates.  This  act,  revised  and  amended, 
still  remains  in  force. 

QUESTIONS    EGR   TEACHERS'    EXAMINATIONS^    ETC. 

By  an  enactment  of  1879  the  State  Board  of  Education 
was  directed  to  "prepare  questions  suitable  for  the  exami- 
nation of  teachers  for  the  various  grades  of  certificates  pro- 
vided by  law  to  be  given  to  teachers  of  the  State,"  and  the 


2^2  QUESTIONS  FOR  EXAMINATIONS 

State  superintendent  was  instructed  to  furnish  these  ques- 
tions to  all  officers  authorized  to  examine  teachers. 

The  intent  of  this  act  was  to  make  an  approach  toward 
uniformity  in  the  examination  of  teachers  throughout  the 
State ;  but,  unfortunately  for  this  purpose,  the  examiners 
were  not  required  to  use  the  questions  so  prepared,  and 
many  of  them  did  not  do  so. 

An  amendment  to  the  county  examiners'  law,  made  in 
1887,  directed  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  to 
prepare  all  examination  questions  and  send  them  under  seal, 
to  the  examining  officers.  The  inplication  is  that  such  ex- 
aminers must  use  these  questions  and  no  others.  Slightly 
changed  in  form,  this  provision  is  still  in  force.  In  all  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  their  official  duties,  the  county  commission- 
ers are  subject  to  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  by  the 
superintendent. 

The  establishment  of  additional  normal  schools,  and  the 
natural  growth  of  the  educational  system  of  the  State,  have 
very  largely  increased  the  labors  and  responsibilities  of  the 
Board  of  Education  and  of  the  Departrrient  of  public  instruc- 
tion. For  many  reasons  the  enlargement  of  the  board  by 
the  addition  of  two  members  would  be  desirable. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

SPECIAL  INSTITUTIONS  OF  PRIMARY  AND  SECONDARY 
EDUCATION. 

Only  brief  sketches  of  these  institutions  will  be  given, 
enough  to  indicate  their  purposes  and  character. 

the:  state  AGRICUI.TURAI.  COLLEGE;. 

The  State  Agricultural  College,  the  pioneer  institution  of 
its  kind  in  the  United  States,  is  usually  and  properly  classed 
among  the  institutions  of  higher  learning;  but  during  the 
early  period  of  its  history  a  considerable  portion  of  its 
courses  of  instruction,  aside  from  what  was  purely  profes- 
sional, fell  within  the  province  of  secondary  education.  The 
terms  of  admission  prescribed  at  first,  were  that  applicants 
''should  pass  a  good  examination  in  the  branches  embraced 
in  a  common  school  education,  namely,  arithmetic,  geogra- 
phy, grammar,  reading,  spelling,  and  penmanship." 

The  original  purpose  was  to  have  a  close  connection  be- 
tween the  rural  schools  and  the  college,  and  the  same  purpose 
is  still  kept  in  view.  A  recent  statute  requires  the  college 
to  admit,  without  further  examination,  students  who  have 
a  diploma  or  certificate  signed  by  the  county  commissioner 
of  schools,  certifying  that  they  have  completed  satisfactorily 
a  course  of  study  prescribed  by  the  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction  for  district  schools,  which  course  must  in- 
clude the  studies  required  for  a  third  grade  teacher's  certifi- 
cate.    This   creates   an   organic   connection   between   these 

233 


234 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  COLLEGE 


schools  and  the  college,  and  obliges  the  college  to  make  pro- 
visions for  some  secondary  instruction. 

The  college  was  established  in  obedience  to  a  requirement 
of  the  constitution  of  1850,  and  the  act  providing  for  its 
organization  bears  date  of  February  12,  1855.  The  insti- 
tution is  located  on  a  farm  of  six  hundred  and  eighty-three 
acres,  situated  about  three  miles  east  from  the  capitol  in 
Lansing.  At  first  the  management  of  the  college  as  stated 
elsewhere  was  committed  to  the  State  Board  of  Education, 
but  since  1861  it  has  been  under  the  control  of  the  State 
Board  of  Agriculture. 

The  first  buildings  were  dedicated,  with  appropriate  ser- 
vices on  the  13th  of  May,  1857,  and  the  first  term  opened 
immediately  afterward.  When  established  the  college  had 
no  endowment  fund,  and  for  several  years  depended  for  its 
support  entirely  upon  legislative  appropriations,  sometimes 
granted  grudgingly  and  after  much  debate.  The  Congres- 
gressional  act  of  1862  donated  to  Michigan  240,000  acres 
of  public  lands  for  the  endowment  of  an  agricultural  and 
mechanical  school.  The  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  these  lands 
have  created  a  trust  fund,  which,  on  the  30th  of  June,  1900, 
amounted  to  about  $850,000.  The  income  of  this  at  present 
is  about  $70,000.  The  college,  also,  received  during  that 
year,  $25,000  from  the  United  States  government.  It  has 
now  a  larger  permanent  endowment  than  any  other  educa- 
tional institution  in  the  State.  The  influence  of  the  institu- 
tion has  been  largely  increased  by  a  system  of  farmers'  in- 
stitutes, conducted  each  year  by  members  of  the  faculty 
under  the  general  direction  of  the  board  of  agriculture. 

The  value  of  the  grounds,  buildings,  apparatus,  library, 
etc.,  was  estimated  at  $800,000  in  the  year  1903.     The  num- 


SCHOOI.S  FOR  THE  DEAF  235 

ber  of  Professors  and  other  teachers  was  66 ;  the  number  of 
students,  960 ;  the  number  of  graduates,  62 ;  and  the  number 
of  vokimes  in  the  Hbrary,  23,000.  The  successive  Presi- 
dents of  the  College  have  been  Joseph  R.  Williams,  Theoph- 
ilus  C.  Abbot,  Edwin  Willits,  Oscar  Clute,  I^ewis  G.  Gorton, 
and  Jonathan  L.  Snyder.  Lewis  R.  Fiske,  and  George  T. 
Fairchild  were  each  for  a  time  acting  President. 

THi:  SCHOOI,  FOR  THE  DEAF. 

The  present  constitution  directs  that  institutions  "for  the 
benefit  of  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind"  shall  be  fostered  and 
supported.  Two  years  prior  to  the  adoption  of  this  consti- 
tution the  Legislature  passed  an  act  to  establish  an  asylum 
for  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind.  Under  the  provision  of  this 
act  the  deaf  and  blind  were  educated  in  the  same  institution 
up  to  the  year  1880,  from  motives  of  economy,  as  there  is 
no  natural  relation  between  the  methods  of  instructions  and 
management  of  the  two  classes.  The  school  was  opened  at 
the  City  of  Flint  in  1854,  Occupying,  for  a  time,  a  small 
rented  building.  The  first  regular  building  for  the  institu- 
tion was  not  ready  for  use  until  1856.  During  the  first  term 
twelve  children  were  received,  eleven  deaf  and  one  blind ; 
the  number  increased  during  the  second  term  to  seventeen 
deaf  and  four  blind. 

The  Principals  of  the  school,  in  succession,  have  been  Mr. 
B.  M.  Fay,  Mr.  E.  L.  Bangs,  Mr.  J.  W.  Parker,  Mr.  Thomas 
Maclntyre,  Mr.  F.  A.  Piatt.  The  chief  ofiicer,  since  1882, 
has  been  designated  Superintendent,  and  the  Superintend- 
ents have  been  Mr.  D.  H.  Church,  Mr.  M.  T.  Gass,  Mr. 
Thomas  Monroe,  and  Mr.  Francis  D.  Clarke,  who  has  filled 
the  position  since  1892. 


236  GROWTH  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

The  growth  of  this  institution  has  been  as  rapid  as  the 
means  at  the  disposal  of  the  managers  allowed.  In  1865 
there  were  94  pupils;  in  1883,  271;  in  1893,  294;  in  1903, 
410.  Number  of  graduates  in  1903,  16;  whole  number  of 
graduates,  nearly  1,400;  number  of  instructors  in  1900,  34. 
Value  of  grounds,  buildings,  library,  etc.,  $518,134.27.  The 
school  is  under  the  control  of  a  board  of  three  trustees  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor,  and  is  supported  by  legislative  ap- 
propriations. The  number  of  deaf  children  of  school  age 
in  the  State  is  between  ten  and  twelve  hundred. 

Of  the  studies  and  instruction  in  the  school  for  the  deaf, 
the  Principal  says :  "Our  course  of  study  runs  pretty  near- 
ly with  that  in  the  public  schools  except  that  our  pupils 
start  from  a  lower  point,  and  it  is  not  for  some  years  that 
the  studies  are  the  same.  Our  great  difficulty  is  to  teach 
language.  *  *  *  *  It  is  not  till  the  fourth  or  fifth  year 
that  we  can  use  the  text-books  prepared  for  normal  children 
at  all.  If  a  boy  or  girl  will  stay  with  us  during  the  whole 
course — thirteen  years — we  can  graduate  them  about  on  an 
equality  with  the  Junior  class  of  our  Michigan  High 
Schools." 

In  addition  to  the  ordinary  studies  the  pupils  are  taught 
to  speak  and  to  read  the  lips.  In  many  classes  speech  is 
used  constantly  in  the  school  room.  Besides  regular  school 
work  every  student  is  taught  a  trade  of  some  sort.  Among 
these  trades  are  cabinet-making,  which  includes  all  kinds  of 
wood-working,  glazing,  painting,  and  some  knowledge  of 
upholstering  and  other  related  matters,  shoe-making,  tailor- 
ing, sewing,  dress-making,  house-work  generally,  drawing, 
designing,  something  of  embroidery,  engraving  and  etching, 
and  printing.     A  small  weekly  paper  is  published,  the  work 


SCHOOL  FOR  THE  BLIND  237 

upon  which  is  done  by  pupils.  The  intention  is  to  send 
pupils  out  from  school  prepared  to  be  self-supporting  and 
something  more.  A  considerable  number  of  the  graduates 
of  the  school  have  entered  the  Gallaudet  college  for  the  deaf 
at  Washington,  an  institution  supported  by  the  National 
government,  and  have  made  good  records  there.  By  a  law 
enacted  in  1899,  the  Superintendent  of  public  instruction 
is  authorized  and  directed,  under  certain  conditions,  to  grant 
permission  to  school  boards  of  districts  and  cities  to  establish 
and  maintain  day  schools  for  the  deaf.  The  sum  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars  may  be  drawn  from  the  State 
treasury  for  the  instruction  of  each  deaf  pupil  for  a  period 
of  nine  months  in  the  year,  and  a  proportionately  less  sum 
for  a  shorter  period.  Teachers  for  such  schools  must  have 
special  instruction  in  methods  of  teaching  the  deaf,  and  at 
least  one  year's  experience  in  teaching  in  a  school  for  the 
deaf.  The  so-called  ''oral"  system  must  be  taught  in  these 
schools. 

the;  school  for  the  blind. 

As  has  been  previously  stated,  the  blind  were  taught  in 
the  same  institution  with  the  deaf  until  1880.  In  September 
of  that  year  a  separate  school  for  the  blind  was  opened  tem- 
porarily in  a  leased  building  at  Lansing  with  thirty-three 
pupils  in  attendance.  Subsequently  the  leased  property, 
with  forty-five  acres  of  land,  was  purchased  by  the  State, 
and  the  location  of  the  school  was  made  permanent.  Grad- 
ually the  buildings  and  other  facilities  have  been  increased 
until  the  school  has  become  one  of  the  best  equipped  and 
most  efficient  institutions  of  the  kind  in  the  country. 

The  estimated  value  of  the  grounds,  buildings,  library, 


238  COURSE  OF  STUDIES 

etc.,  is  $155,000.  The  number  of  instructors  in  1900,  was 
10,  and  the  number  of  pupils  during  the  year  was  124.  The 
board  of  control  consists  of  three  members  appointed  by  the 
governor. 

The  course  of  studies  covers  eleven  grades  and  is  very 
much  like  that  of  the  ordinary  graded  school.  The  Princi- 
pal says :  "We  have  a  course  of  study  comparing  favorably 
with  those  of  the  best  high  schools  in  the  State."  He  fur- 
ther says :  ''An  arrangement  has  been  made  by  which  some 
of  our  more  advanced  students  may  take  certain  studies  in 
the  city  high  school.  ^  ^  ^  -^  And  I  have  assurance 
from  the  authorities  of  our  State  University  that  if  any  of 
our  graduates  wish  to  enter  that  institution  favorable  con- 
sideration will  be  given  to  a  diploma  granted  by  this  school." 

Various  kinds  of  handicrafts. are  taught  in  the  institution; 
among  those  are  sewing,  cooking,  broom-making,  piano- 
tuning,  and  book-making.  Quite  an  extended  list  of  books 
has  been  printed  at  the  school  in  the  American  Braille  sys- 
tem ;  many  of  these  are  of  a  high  literary  and  scientific  char- 
acter. 

The  following  paragraph  from  the  last  report  of  the 
school  is  worthy  of  consideration :  *'It  is  undoubtedly  still 
true,  as  in  the  past,  that  there  are  more  blind  persons  of 
school  age  in  this  State  not  availing  themselves  of  the  priv- 
ileges of  this  school  than  are  enrolled  in  it.  For  the  sake 
of  these  boys  and  girls  themselves,  for  the  sake  of  the  public 
welfare  and  good  government,  this  condition  of  things 
should  be  changed.  A  law  making  the  education  of  the 
blind  compulsory  within  reasonable  limits,  and  with  appro- 
priate penalties  for  those  causing  or  permitting  the  neglect, 
would  be  eminently  wholesome. 


INDUSTRIAL   SCHOOL   FOR   BOYS  239 

The  successive  Superintendents  of  the  school  have  been 
James  F.  McElroy,  W.  G.  Race  (acting),  George  Barnes, 
Robert  Barker,  Mrs.  Josephine  Pampell,  John  Fanning,  Ed- 
ward P.  Church,  Warren  C.  Hull,  and  Clarence  E.  Holmes. 

the:  industrial,  schooi,  i^or  boys. 

This  institution  is  located  at  Lansing,  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  city,  on  a  farm  of  300  acres.  There  are  thirteen 
buildings,  exclusive  of  shops  and  barns,  and  the  value  of  the 
property  is  estimated  at  something  over  $300,000.  It  was 
established  by  a  legislative  act  of  1855,  and  opened  for  the 
reception  of  boys  in  September,  1856.  The  institution  was 
originally  called  a  "House  of  Correction  for  juvenile  offend- 
ers" ;  in  1859  the  name  was  changed  to  "State  Reform 
School,"  and  later  still  it  was  again  changed  to  "Industrial 
School  for  Boys."  These  successive  changes  of  official 
designation  indicate  pretty  clearly  the  progressive  change 
and  improvement  in  popular  sentiment  in  relation  to  the  pur- 
pose of  the  institution  and  the  influence  which  it  should  have 
upon  its  inmates.  At  first  a  juvenile  prison,  with  bars  and 
grates,  with  high,  unsightly  fences  and  locks,  the  institu- 
tion has  become  an  elementary  and  industrial  school,  with 
only  so  much  of  restraint  and  discipline  as  must  necessarily 
be  exercised  where  a  large  number  of  boys  are  brought  to- 
gether for  education  and  training  into  habits  of  industry, 
regularity,  self-control,  and  respect  for  law  and  order.  Four 
and  one-half  hours  per  day  are  devoted  to  study  and  instruc- 
tion in  conmion  school  branches,  reasonable  time  is  given 
for  recreation  and  amusement,  and  regular  labor  is  re- 
quired in  some  department  of  industry.  As  opportunities 
offer  the  younger  boys  are  placed  out  iti  homes,  careful  pro- 


240  GENERAL  WORK  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

vision  being  made  that  they  shall  receive  good  treatment 
and  suitable  education.  The  Superintendent  reports  that 
but  few  of  those  thus  placed  out  are  returned  to  the  school ; 
and  of  those  who  leave  the  institution,  at  the  close  of  their 
period  of  detention,  or  earlier,  as  a  reward  for  good  be- 
havior, he  testifies  ''that  at  least  ninety  percent  become  self- 
supporting,  respectable  citizens,  and  many  of  them  leading 
business  men." 

The  boys  are  instructed  and  trained  in  almost  all  indus- 
trial employments.  Among  these  are  farming,  carpenter- 
work,  chair-making,  shoe-making,  tailoring,  painting,  and 
printing. 

The  institution  supports  a  very  fine  band  of  nearly  thirty 
pieces,  and  an  excellent  chorus  numbering  usually  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  boys.  At  the  date  of  the  Superintendent's  re- 
port for  1900,  670  pupils  were  enrolled.  The  number  of 
course  varies  from  month  to  month,  the  smallest  number 
during  the  year  1899- 1900,  being  590,  the  largest,  670. 
Since  the  opening  of  the  institution  7,616  pupils  have  been 
received;  of  these  7,157  were  white  boys,  432  colored  boys, 
18  Indians,  i  Chinese,  and  8  girls.  The  largest  numbers 
are  brought  to  the  school  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  From  this 
age  the  number  decreases  regularly  but  slowly  to  the  age 
of  twelve,  and  then  drops  rapidly. 

The  institution  is  supported  by  legislative  appropriations, 
and  is  managed  by  a  board  of  three  persons  appointed  by 
the  Governor,  the  Governor  himself  being  a  member,  ex- 
officio. 

The  Superintendents  of  the  institution  in  order,  have 
been :  Theodore  Foster,  D.  B.  Nichol,  Cephus  B.  Robinson, 
Charles  Johnson,  Frank  M.  Howe,  C.  A.  Gower,  W.  H.  S. 
Wood,  J.  E.  St.  John. 


INDUSTRIAL  H0M£  FOR  GIRLS  241 

THE  INDUSTRIAI.  HOME  FOR  GIRIvS. 

The  Industrial  Home  for  girls  was  established  by  an  act 
of  the  Legislature  passed  in  1879.  It  is  located  about  a  mile 
north  of  the  City  of  Adrian,  on  a  farm  of  113  acres,  and  has 
at  present  nineteen  buildings  of  various  kinds.  The  property 
is  valued  at  $191,1 7 L46.  The  institution  was  at  first  desig- 
nated as  a  ''Reform  School  for  Girls,"  but,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  corresponding  institution  for  boys,  the  natural  process 
of  evolution,  within  a  few  years,  gave  it  the  present  more 
agreeable  and  more  helpful  name.  The  school  is  arranged 
and  conducted  on  the  cottage  plan,  each  cottage  being  under 
the  management  of  an  experienced  matron.  The  studies 
taught  are  those  of  the  ordinary  elementary  school.  "The 
girls  are  employed  in  the  morning  at  housework,  laundry, 
light  work  on  the  lawn  and  in  the  garden ;  in  the  afternoon 
they  attend  school."  Cooking  is  taught  by  a  regularly 
trained  teacher,  and  also  dress-making  and  other  industries 
appropriate  to  the  design  of  the  institution.  To  the  year 
1903,  1,822  girls  had  been  received  into  the  house.  Such 
as  show  by  their  good  conduct  that  they  can  safely  leave 
the  school,  are  sent  out  on  contract,  or  leave  of  absence. 
It  is  stated  that  ''an  average  of  about  no  are  out  on  contract 
leading  good  lives  and  doing  well."  The  average  number 
of  girls  in  the  institution,  during  1900,  was  three  hundred, 
and  the  number  of  officers  and  teachers  was  thirty-three. 
Not  all  who  come  to  the  school  are  thoroughly  reformed ; 
this  could  not  be  reasonably  expected.  But  many  instructed 
there,  "have  gone  forth  into  the  world,  are  married  and  in 
homes  of  their  own,  leading  good  lives.  Quite  a  number 
are  dress-making  for  a  living,  some  are  teaching,  and  sev- 


242 


STATE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL 


eral,  having  taken  the  course  in  nursing,  are  regular  trained 
nurses. 

The  school  has  thus  far  done  good  work,  and  is  accom- 
plishing the  purpose  for  which  it  was  established  with  a 
good  degree  of  success. 

The  original  act  for  the  organization  of  the  institution 
provided  that  "the  general  supervision  and  government 
should  be  vested  in  a  board  of  control  to  consist  of  four 
women  and  two  men,  appointed  by  the  Governor  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate."  This  provision  has 
been  modified,  and  at  present  the  board  of  control  consists 
of  two  men  and  one  woman.  The  support  of  the  Home 
depends  upon  biennial  appropriations  of  the  Legislature. 

The  successive  Superintendents  have  been  Emma  Hall, 
Margaret  Scott,  and  Lucy  M.  Sickels. 

THE  STATE  PUBI^IC  SCHOOI^. 

In  the  year  1870,  a  commission  appointed  by  the  Governor 
visited  many  of  the  poor-houses  in  the  State,  and  found  a 
large  number  of  children  in  them  under  the  age  of  sixteen, 
mingled  with  older  people,  many  of  whom  were  disrepu- 
table in  character.  As  a  result  of  this  in^-estigation  an  act 
was  passed  the  next  year  providing  for  the  establishment  of 
an  institution  to  be  called  the  "State  Public  School  for  de- 
pendent children."  The  school  was  opened  in  May,  1874. 
By  the  original  act  the  purpose  of  the  institution  was  stated 
to  be  "the  reception,  care,  education,  and  placing  in  family 
homes  of  all  the  dependent  children  of  the  State  of  sound 
body  and  mind,  between  four  and  sixteen  years  of  age." 
The  age  limit  has  since  been  changed  and  made  "between 
one  and  twelve,"  with  discretion  on  the  part  of  the  Bo^r4 


LOCATION   AND    ORGANIZATION 


243 


of  control  to  receive  children  under  one  year.  Some  chil- 
dren have  been  taken  into  the  school  when  but  a  few  weeks 
old,  and  been  placed  in  the  "Baby  Cottage,"  so-called. 

Michigan  claims  the  honor  of  having  established  the  first 
public  school  of  this  kind.  vSimilar  institutions  have  been 
since  organized  by  several  other  States ;  and  private  institu- 
tions for  essentially  the  same  object  have  existed  in  all  the 
Christian  centuries. 

The  school  is  located  about  a  mile  north  from  the  City 
of  Coldwater,  in  Branch  county,  on  a  farm  of  160  acres. 
The  location  is  a  pleasant  one,  with  a  "Picturesque  prospect 
in  every  direction."  There  is  an  extensive  garden ;  a  natural 
grove  of  five  acres ;  large  play  grounds,  and  an  orchard  of 
700  fruit  trees.  The  surroundings  of  the  children  are  thus 
made  of  the  most  desirable  character.  The  equipment  con- 
sists of  a  central  administration  building,  a  Superintendent's 
residence,  a  school  house,  nine  cottages,  and  all  other  needed 
subordinate  buildings.  The  cottages,  in  charge  of  carefully 
selected  cottage  managers,  are  the  temporary  homes  of 
the  children.  The  system  of  organization  combines  the  fam- 
ily and  the  aggregate  plans.  The  children  attend  school 
and  have  their  meals  together ;  in  other  respects,  the  inmates 
of  each  cottage  form  a  separate  family.  There  is  a  kinder- 
garten for  the  youngest  children,  and  the  primary  branches 
are  taught  to  those  old  enough  to  attend  regular  classes  of 
the  elementary  grades.  Out  of  school  hours,  children  of 
suitable  ages  are  instructed  in  common  daily  labor  in  the 
garden  and  about  the  buildings.  It  is  the  policy  of  the 
managers  to  retain  children  in  the  school  only  until  good 
homes  can  be  found  for  them  in  private  families  somewhere 
in  the  State.     To  find  such  homes  and  place  the  children  in 


244 


CARE  OF  THE  CHILDREN 


them  is  the  most  important  and  valuable  work  of  the  insti- 
tution. 

In  order  to  carry  out  this  purpose  most  effectually,  an 
ofificer  is  appointed  by  the  board  of  control  known  as  the 
''State  Agent"  of  the  school  whose  duty  is  to  find  homes  for 
the  children,  and  to  make  all  necessary  arrangements  for 
their  proper  care,  protection,  and  education.  The  Superin- 
tendent of  the  school  also  has  similar  powers  in  this  direc- 
tion. In  addition  to  this,  the  Governor  is  authorized  to 
appoint  an  agent  of  the  State  Board  of  Correction  and  Char- 
ities in  each  county  whose  duty  is  to  provide  for  the  proper 
*'care  of  juvenile  offenders  and  dependent  children."  When- 
ever necessary,  this  agent  is  to  visit  the  neig^hborhoods  and 
families  where  children  have  been  placed,  and  the  children 
themselves,  and  to  ascertain  whether  the  conditions  of  con- 
tracts are  observed,  and  the  children  are  receiving  such  at- 
tention and  care  as  they  need,  and  their  best  interests  re- 
quire. 

The  provisions  for  the  care  and  protection  of  the  depend- 
ent children  of  the  State,  seem  to  be  all  that  could  be  de- 
sired, and  the  management  of  the  school  has  generally  been 
of  the  most  satisfactory  character. 

Up  to  the  fifteenth  of  December,  1903,  5,378  children  had 
been  received  into  the  institution,  and  at  that  date  170  were 
remaining  there  temporarily,  until  places  could  be  found  for 
them.  The  school  is  under  the  control  of  a  board  of  three 
persons  appointed  by  the  Governor.  In  addition  to  the 
general  Superintendent  and  a  matron  there  are  nine  cottage 
managers  and  five  teachers. 

The  successive  Superintendents  have  been  Zelotes  Trues- 
dell,  Lyman  P.  Allen,  John  N.  Foster,  Wesley  Sears,  Chancy 


Home  for  the  feeble-mindEd  245 

F.  Newkirk,  W.  H.  Wieand,  A.  N.  Woodruff,  A.  J.  Mur- 
ray, and  John  B.  Montgomery. 

the:  home:  for  the:  i^e:e:bi,e-minde:d  and  e:piive:ptic. 

By  a  legislative  act  of  1893  provisions  were  made  for  es- 
tablishing a  Home  for  the  Feeble  Minded  and  the  Epileptic, 
and  the  institution  was  opened  in  August,  1895.  The  home 
is  located  on  a  tract  of  355  acres  of  land  near  the  City  of 
Lapeer,  and  is  controlled  by  a  board  of  three  persons  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor.  The  purpose  of  the  institution 
is  '*to  provide,  by  all  proper  and  feasible  means  for  the  in- 
tellectual, moral,  and  physical  training  of  that  unfortunate 
portion  of  the  community  who  have  been  born  or  by  disease 
have  become,  imbecile  or  feeble  minded  or  epileptic,  and  by 
a  judicious  and  well  adapted  course  of  training  and  manage- 
ment to  ameliorate  their  condition  and  to  develop  as  much 
as  possible  their  intellectual  faculties,  to  reclaim  tlnem  from 
their  unhappy  condition  and  fit  them,  as  far  as  possible,  for 
public  usefulness  in  society."  The  Home  is  organized  on 
the  cottage  system,  and  there  are,  at  this  time,  twelve  build- 
ings of  various  kinds.  The  number  in  the  institution  June 
30,  1900,  was  282,  and  the  total  number  received  to  that  date 
was  353,  140  males,  and  213  females.  Besides  the  superin- 
tendent. Dr.  W.  A.  Polglase,  seventeen  attendants  and  four 
teachers  were  employed  at  that  time,  with  a  necessarily 
large  number  of  other  laborers  of  various  kinds.  The  Home 
is  doing  the  usual  work  of  institutions  of  its  character,  and 
is  a  proper  adjunct  of  a  system  of  public  instruction.  Wheth- 
er the  feeble  minded  and  the  epileptic  should  be  cared  for 
in  the  same  institution  is  a  question  open  to  debate  and  to 
future  determination. 


246  DIFFICULTY  OF  CLASSIFICATION 

Mental  defects  and  deficiencies  are  of  all  degrees,  from 
the  boy  or  girl  who  is  merely  more  or  less  backward  in  de- 
velopment to  the  profound  idiot  who  manifests  scarcely  any 
traits  of  human  intelligence.  Satisfactory  classification  is 
consequently  extremely  difficult.  The  classification  adopted 
in  the  Michigan  school  is  thus  described :  We  have,  "first, 
the  imbeciles  of  high,  middle,  and  low  grades,  all  of  whom 
are  teachable  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Second,  idiots, 
excitable  or  apathetic,  who  lack  intelligence  to  attend  to 
their  simplest  wants  and  are  not  improvable  to  any  marked 
extent.  Between  these  two  groups  we  find  children  who 
have  advanced  a  little  mentally,  but  have  soon  reached  their 
limits  and  remain  stationary,  who  are  termed  idio-imbeciles. 
The  imbecile  classes  are  not  only  teachable,  but  may  often 
be  made  exceedingly  useful  in  occupations  which  are  care- 
fully selected  as  best  adapted  to  their  most  fully  developed 
faculties." 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
SOME  GENERAL  STATISTICS  AND  REFERENCES. 

Some  statistics  relating  to  special  subjects  have  been  given 
in  previous  chapters.  A  few  are  added  here  of  a  general 
character  to  indicate  the  rate  and  progress  of  development. 
It  will  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  statistics  of  the  early  years 
are  only  approximately  correct.  Reports  from  school  offi- 
cials during  that  period  were  very  imperfect,  and  in  many 
cases  no  reports  were  made.  The  Superintendent  was  left 
to  rely  upon  guesses  and  estimates,  and  those  sometimes 
varied  from  year  to  year.  The  statistics  of  recent  years 
are  as  trustworthy  as  similar  statistics  ever  are,  and,  in 
many  cases,  much  care  has  evidently  been  taken  to  secure 
correctness. 

tabi^e;  re:i,ating  to  chil,dre:n. 


Year 

School 
Ages 

School 
Census 

Children 

in  Public 

Schools 

Estimated  Child- 
dren  in  Private 
Schools 

Average  length 
of  Schools   in 
months 

1836 

5  to  16 

Reports 
2.337     im- 
perfect 

48,817       " 

2,337 

No  Statistics 

184!) 

5  to  17 

47.901 

No  Statistics 

1850 

4  to  18 

132,234 

110,478 

No  Statistics 

1860 

4  to  18 

246.802 

193,107 

4,708  (1863) 

6.2 

1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 

5  to  20 
5  to  20 
5  to  20 
5  to  20 

384,554 
506,221 
654,502 

721,698 

278.686 
362,196 
427,032 
514,636 

9,613 
18,854 
33,975 
52,239 

6.9 
1   ungraded  — 7.3 

1   graded 9.  v 

j   ungraded.— 7.7 

/    graded 9.5 

j    ungraded- 8.17 

(    graded 8.54 

* 

*The  apparent  decrease  in  the  length  of  the  graded  schools,  as 
shown  by  the  report  of  1900,  has  resulted,  in  part,  from  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  small  graded  schools. 

247 


248 


STATISTICS 


TAEI^K   Rli:i.ATlNG   TO   Tl^ACHERS    AND    WAGES. 


si 

Teachers  Employed 

Average  Wages  per 
Month 

Total  Amount 
Paid  Teachers 

Men 

Women 

Total 
Number 

Men 

Women 

1845 
1850 
1860 
1870 

1880 
1890 
1900 

1.214 
1,475 
2.599 
2,i93 
4,073 
3.561 
3,240 

1.839 
2,612 
5.344 
8,221 
9,877 
12,429 
12,684 

3,053 
4,087 
7,943 
11.014 
13.949 
15,990 
15,924 

111.98 
14.14 
26.06 
52.62 
37.28 
46.76 
46.73 

$5.24 
6.46 
13.52 
27.31 
25.73 
32.75 
35.71 

$     24.180.08 
37,730.02 
467,286.50 
1,398.228.59 
1,917,983  99 
3,326,287.04 
4,503,549.39 

TABLE)    SHOWING    iPlNANCIAI,    CONDITIONS. 


Years 

Estimated  Value  of 
all  School  property 

Estimated  Value  of 
School  Property  in 
Graded  Districts 

Total  Expenditures 
for  School  Purpo- 
ses 

1860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 

i  1,633,647 
6,234,797 

8,977,844 
IS.  858,627 
19,338,173 

$  511,520.25 

3,895,287 
5,826,718 
9,540,702 
15,045,291 

(1862)    $    689,070.10 
2.789,553.78 
3,109.915.14 
5.698,808.84 
7,297.691.45 

adde:nda. 


Amount  of  Educational  Trust  Funds,  June  30,  1901, 

given  in  the  Auditor  General's  report: 

Primary  School  7%  Fund. $4,122,832.63 

Primary  School  5%  Fund 877,575.68 

Total $5,000,408.31 

University  Fund $    536,748.81 

Agricultural  College  Fund 832,608.09 

Normal  School  Fund 67,842.62 


as 


EXPENDED  FOR  EDUCATIONAL  PURPOSES   249 

Money  expended  for  educational  purposes  during  the  year 
1901,  by  State  Report: 

Rural  and  Graded  Schools $8,395,019.05 

University  of  Michigan 565,953.54 

Agricultural  College 235,620.68 

College  of  Mines 78,558.23 

State  Normal  College 96,864.58 

Central  Normal  School 66,418.15 

Northern  Normal  School 23,960.07 

School  for  the  Blind 31. 112.20 

Industrial  School  for  Boys 80,841.50 

Industrial  Home  for  Girls 52,228.68 

School  for  the  Deaf 1 16,673.85 

State  Public  School 39,689.52 

Total $9,782,940.05 

REFERENCES  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

1.  Territorial  Laws. 

2.  Proceedings  of  the  Territorial  Legislative  Council. 

3.  Reports  of  the  Superintendents  of  Public  Instruction. 

The  reports  of  the  first  Superintendents  were  not  publish- 
ed in  separate  volumes,  but  printed  with  the  proceedings  of 
the  Legislature,  and  consequently  are  obtained  with  diffi- 
culty. The  volume  published  by  Superintendent  Shearman 
in  1852,  entitled  ''System  of  Public  Instruction  and  Primary 
School  Law  of  Michigan,"  contains  brief  synopses  of  the 
early  reports,  extracts  from  the  messages  of  the  Governors 
and  from  the  reports  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  and 
from  other  documents  relating  to  education.  It  contains, 
also,  much  other  historical  matter  relating  to  education  in 
the  Territory  and  State  of  Michigan. 

Among  the  reports,  the  first  and  second  of  Superintendent 
Pierce,  are  of  especial  historical  interest,  and  also  the  report 


^56  REFERENCES  AND  AUTHORITIES 

of  Superintendent  Shearman  just  referred  to.  The  report 
for  1880  has  a  considerable  amount  of  historical,  biographi- 
cal, and  statistical  matter  in  addition  to  the  usual  annual 
compilations. 

4.  The  successive  editions  of  School  laws. 

5.  Reports  of  the  various  public  educational  institutions. 

6.  Proceedings  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  and 
other  educational  organizations. 

7.  The  various  documents  published,  from  time  to  time, 
by  the  State  educational  department. 

8.  Journal  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1850. 

9.  History  of  Detroit  by  Silas  Farmer. 

10.  Pioneer  Collections. 

11.  The  Michigan  Journal  of  Education,  1854-1861. 

12.  The  Michigan  Teacher,  1866-1876. 

13.  The  Michigan  School  Moderator,   1880,  and  other 
educational  papers  and  periodicals. 

14.  Higher  Education  in  Michigan  by  Andrew  C.  Mc- 
Laughlin. 

15.  Historical  Sketches  of  Education  in  Michigan,  from 
State  report  for  1880. 

16.  Chart  and  Key  of  the  Educational  System  of  Mich- 
igan, compiled  in  1876,  by  D.  C.  Jacokes. 

17.  Michigan  and  its  Resources,  1893. 

18.  Michigan  Semi-Centennial,  1886. 

19.  History  of  the  Michigan  State  Normal  School,  by 
D.  Putnam. 

20.  Political  History  of  Michigan,  by  Justice  J.  V.  Camp- 
bell. 

21.  Michigan,  A  History  of  Governments,  by  Justice  T. 
M.  Cooley. 

22.  The  Michigan  Legislative  Manuals. 

23.  Reports  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion. 


APPENDIX. 
SCHOOL  LEGISLATION  OF  1903. 

Delay  in  the  publication  of  this  volume  makes  it  possible 
to  add  a  summary  of  the  school  legislation  of  1903. 

The  most  important  act  relates  to  the  establishment  of 
Normal  Training  Classes. 

The  enactment  of  this  law  marks  a  "new  departure"  in 
the  matter  of  preparing  teachers  for  the  rural  schools. 
Probably  experience  will  suggest  some  modifications  in  its 
provisions,  which  are  in  substance  as  follows : 

1.  The  Superintendent  of  public  instruction  is  author- 
ized to  grant  permission  for  the  establishment  of  a  normal 
training  class  in  any  county  of  the  State  in  which  no  normal 
school  is  located.  Only  one  such  class  can  be  established 
in  any  county  and  only  ten  classes  in  any  one  year.  The 
Superintendent  prescribes  the  conditions  under  which  per- 
mission will  be  granted. 

2.  The  classes  are  to  be  under  the  control  of  a  County 
Normal  Board  composed  oi  the  State  Superintendent,  the 
County  Commissioner  of  Schools,  and  the  Superintendent 
of  the  schools  with  which  the  class  is  connected.  In  case 
the  Superintendent  should  be  county  commissioner,  the 
board  of  education  of  the  district  in  which  the  class  is  or- 
ganized, elects  the  third  member  of  the  county  board. 

3.  In  order  that  a  class  may  be  established  the  people 
of  the  district  must,  by  a  majority  vote,  favor  the  proposi- 
tion, and  the  school  board  of  the  district  must  furnish  con- 

251 


252  SCHOOL  LEGISLATION  OF  1963 

venient  rooms  and  satisfactory  teachers.  The  Supervisors 
of  the  county  must  also  favor  the  establishment  of  the  class. 
The  class  must  have  at  least  ten  members,  and  must  be  main- 
tained at  least  thirty-two  weeks  in  the  year. 

4.  Applicants  for  admission  to  the  class  must  be  not 
less  than  seventeen  years  of  age,  of  good  moral  character, 
and  must  pledge  themselves  to  remain  in  the  class  for  a  year, 
and  to  engage  in  teaching  upon  graduation,  either  in  the 
rural  schools  or  in  the  lower  grades  of  graded  schools. 

5.  Two  courses  of  study  are  prescribed,  one  for  one 
year,  and  one  for  two  years,  and  the  scholastic  conditions  of 
admission  are  prescribed. 

The  courses  are  similar  to  those  in  the  elementary  normal 
schools,  with  the  addition  of  elementary  agriculture  and 
domestic  science. 

6.  Certificates. 

Graduates  from  the  one  year  course  receive  a  certificate 
valid  for  three  years,  entitling  the  holder  to  teach,  for  three 
years,  in  any  school  in  the  county  in  which  not  more  than 
two  teachers  are  employed. 

Graduates  from  the  two  years'  course  receive  a  certificate 
valid  for  five  years,  entitling  the  holder  to  teach  in  any 
school  in  the  county  in  grades  below  the  tenth. 

Both  grades  of  certificates  are  valid  in  any  county  or  city 
in  the  State  when  endorsed  by  the  authority  which  grants 
certificates  in  such  county  or  city. 

The  certificates  may  be  renewed  by  the  County  Board. 

7.  Support. 

Funds  for  the  support  of  these  normal  classes  are  de- 
rived (i)  from  the  State,  (2)  the  County,  and  (3)  the  dis- 
trict in  which  the  school  is  located.     The  State  pays  an- 


ADDITIONAL  NORMAL  SCHOOL  253 

niially  $250  for  each  teacher  employed  in  the  school,  pro- 
vided that  the  total  appropriation  to  any  one  county  for  one 
school  year,  shall  not  exceed  $1,000.  Of  the  balance  needed, 
the  County  pays  one-half,  provided  that  the  amount  paid 
by  the  County  shall  not  exceed  one-half  of  the  amount  paid 
by  the  State.     The  remainder  is  paid  by  the  locality. 

AN  ADDITIONAL  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

An  act  was  passed  authorizing  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion to  locate  and  organize  a  school  to  be  known  as  the 
''Western  State  Normal  School."  The  school  is  to  be  of 
the  same  general  character  as  the  other  Normal  Schools, 
and  is  subject  to  the  control  and  management  of  the  Board 
of  Education.  The  Board  has  located  the  school  at  Kala- 
mazoo, and  the  buildings  will  be  erected  and  the  school  or- 
ganized as  early  as  the  extent  of  the  work  will  permit. 

POWERS  OF  THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  EN- 
LARGED. 

Hitherto  the  diplomas  and  certificates  to  be  bestowed  upon 
graduates  of  the  Normal  Schools  have  been  prescribed  by 
statute.  At  the  session  of  1903  an  act  was  passed  authoriz- 
ing the  Board  of  Education  to  grant  such  diplomas  and  de- 
grees, and  to  issue  such  licenses  and  certificates  to  graduates 
as  the  Board  may,  from  time  to  time,  determine. 

This  will  probably  result  in  some  changes  in  the  certifi- 
cates granted  to  the  graduates  from  the  different  courses 
of  study  in  the  normal  schools. 


254  INSTITUTION  FOR  THE  BLIND 

EMPLOYMENT  INSTITUTION  FOR  THE  BLIND. 

A  law,  partially  educational  in  its  character  and  purpose, 
was  enacted  establishing  the  "Michigan  Employment  Insti- 
tution for  the  Blind."  The  purpose  of  the  institution  is, 
to  provide  "for  the  training,  care  and  employment  of  adult 
blind  persons  of  good  moral  character."  The  institution 
is  located  at  Saginaw,  and  its  control  and  management  are 
vested  in  a  board  of  three  trustees,  one  of  whom  must  be 
a  blind  person.  The  institution  is  to  be  "an  industrial  or 
polytechnic  school  and  factory,  a  working  home,  and  an 
employment  and  information  bureau"  with  a  circulating 
library  and  such  other  departments  as  may  seem  "wise  and 
judicious." 

PAYING  FOR  THE  TUITION  AND  TRANSPORTATION  OF 

PUPILS. 

The  following  important  act  was  passed,  which  has  vital 
connection  with  the  matter  of  consolidating  rural  schools 
and  transporting  children  of  all  grades. 

"Any  school  district  which  maintains  a  school  during  five 
months  of  the  year,  having  children  residents  therein  who 
have  completed  the  studies  of  the  eighth  grade  in  said  school, 
may  at  any  annual  meeting  vote  a  tax  sufficient  to  pay  the 
tuition  and  daily  transportation,  during  school  days,  of  said 
children  to  any  high  school  which  the  school  board  of  said 
district  may  select  and  designate." 

CHANGE  IN  TIME  OF  EXAMINATIONS. 

Regular  examinations  by  the  county  examiners,  for  certi- 
ficates of  all  grades,  are  to  be  held  at  the  county  seat,  on  the 


TIME  OF  EX>\MINATI0NS  255 

second  Thursdays  of  March  and  August. 

Two  other  regular  examinations  may  be  held,  at  such 
places  as  the  examiners  select,  on  the  third  Thursdays  of 
June  and  October.  Only  certificates  of  the  second  and  third 
grades  can  be  granted  at  these  examinations. 

LIBRARIES. 

Some  important  improvements  were  made  in  the  statutes 
relating  to  libraries,  the  details  of  which  can  be  best  learned 
by  referring  to  the  statutes  themselves. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  CHAPTER. 
THE  STATE  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATION. 

The  Legislative  body  in  Michigan  has  been,  from  the  first, 
very  conservative  in  all  matters  relating  to  education.  It 
has  followed  public  sentiment,  sometimes  reluctantly,  but 
has  never  taken  the  initiative  in  any  important  step  of  pro- 
gress. Consequently,  the  development  of  the  school  system 
has  resulted  mainly  from  the  voluntary  action  of  the  people, 
either  as  individuals  or  through  some  organization.  Of 
these  organizations,  the  State  Teachers'  Association  has 
been  the  most  active  and  influential.  For  this  reason,  it 
seems  appropriate  to  give  a  very  brief  sketch  of  the  work 
of  this  Society.  Frequent  allusion  has  been  made,  in  the 
preceding  chapters,  to  specific  actions  of  the  association  upon 
various  subjects,  but  nothing  further  has  been  given. 

Educational  societies  of  one  sort  and  another  had  been 
formed  prior  to  this  State  organization,  but  they  had  all 
been  short-lived  and  had  accompished  very  little.  The  pre- 
liminary organization  of  the  present  State  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation was  made  on  the  12th  of  October,  1852,  at  Ypsilanti, 
during  the  progress  of  a  teachers'  institute  held  immediately 
after  the  dedication  of  the  first  normal  school  building.  The 
more  formal  organization  was  completed  at  a  meeting  held 
at  the  same  place  in  March,  1853,  when  a  constitution  was 
adopted.  Prof.  A.  S.  Welch,  the  Principal  of  the  Normal 
School,  was  elected  president  at  the  preliminary  meeting 
and  reelected  after  the  adoption  of  the  constitution. 

256 


EARLY  MEMBERSHIP  257 

The  constitution  made  no  statement  of  the  specific  pur- 
poses of  the  organization,  but  left  the  executive  board  free 
to  "arrange  the  order  of  exercises  for  the  Association  at 
each  meeting,"  according  to  its  judgment.  Any  person 
could  become  a  member  by  subscribing  to  the  constitution 
and  paying  the  annual  fee.  It  was  not  the  intention  of  the 
founders  of  the  association  to  confine  its  membership  to 
teachers,  or  limit  its  field  of  activity  by  definite  and  narrow 
boundaries.  They  proposed  to  act  in  any  direction  in  which 
action  was  most  needed  under  the  conditions  then  existing, 
and  under  conditions  which  might  subsequently  arise. 
Some  of  the  most  influential  earliest  members  were  not 
teachers  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term. 

During  several  years  semi-annual  meetings  wefe  held 
and  much  experimenting  was  had  to  determine  the  best 
time  in  the  year  for  the  annual  meeting.  The  first  three 
meetings  were  held  in  connection  with  teachers'  institutes, 
the  exercises  of  the  association  alternating  with  those  of 
the  institute. 

The  first  meeting  without  the  adjunct  of  an  institute  was 
held  in  Detroit  in  April,  1854.  Horace  Mann  and  Henry 
Barnard  were  both  present  at  this  meeting,  and  Mr.  Mann 
gave  two  of  his  most  able  addresses. 
.  Brief  mention  must  be  made  of  a  few  of  those  most 
prominent  and  active  in  the  organization  and  management 
of  the  association  during  the  early  years  of  its  existence. 

The  organization  of  the  association  at  that  particular 
time  and  place  was  due  to  the  efforts  of  Prof.  A.  S.  Welch, 
then  just  appointed  Principal  of  the  Normal  School.  Mr. 
Welch  was  a  native  of  Connecticut,  came  to  Michigan  at 
the  age  of  eighteen,  graduated  from  th?  Uniy^rsity  in  1846, 


258  INDIVIDUAL  MEMBERS 

studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  His  taste,  how- 
ever, led  him  to  abandon  the  law  and  he  became  Principal 
of  the  union  school  at  Jonesville.  His  success  there  caused 
his  election  to  the  Principalship  of  the  Normal,  a  position 
which  he  resigned  after  thirteen  years  of  hard  labor,  on 
account  of  impaired  health.  For  some  years  he  was  the 
central  figure  in  the  small  group  which  controlled  the 
affairs  of  the  association. 

Miss  A.  C.  Rogers,  the  first  Preceptress  of  the  Normal 
School,  a  woman  of  marked  ability  and  great  energy,  was 
one  of  the  first  officers  of  the  Society  and  rendered  valuable 
services  in  the  meetings  for  considerable  time.  Prof.  J. 
M.  B.  Sill,  so  well  known  for  many  years  in  the  educational 
work  of  the  State,  was  one  of  the  original  members,  as  was 
also  Prof.  C.  F.  R.  Bellows,  for  a  long  time  at  the  head  of 
the  deparment  of  mathematics  in  the  Normal  School. 

Prof.  Joseph  Estabrook  appears  at  the  second  meeting 
in  1853.  A  native  of  New  Hampshire,  a  graduate  of  Ober- 
lin  College  in  1847,  Principal  of  the  Union  School  at  Ypsi- 
lanti  for  thirteen  years,  Superintendent  of  East  Saginaw 
Schools,  Principal  of  the  Normal  School  nine  years,  Re- 
gent of  the  University  six  years.  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  four  years,  and  lastly  Professor  in  Olivet  Col- 
lege, Prof.  Estabrook  was  better  known  and  more  deeply 
loved  than  any  other  teacher  in  Michigan. 

At  the  third  meeting  Dr.  J.  A.  B.  Stone,  the  first  President 
of  Kalamazoo  College,  and  Mrs.  Stone,  long  time  the  able 
head  of  the  female  department  of  that  college,  became  active 
members  of  the  association.  At  the  same  time,  Dr.  E.  O. 
Hr;  n  !ater  President  of  the  University,  and  Prof.  J.  M. 
Gregory^  afterwards   State   Superintendent   for  six  ^ears, 


JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION  259 

and  for  several  years  more  influential  than  any  other  man 
in  directing  the  affairs  of  the  association,  appeared. 

At  the  fourth  meeting  Hon.  Ira  Mayhew,  State  Superin- 
tendent, Prof.  J.  F.  Gary  of  the  Normal  School,  Prof. 
Nichols  of  Detroit,  Prof.  A.  Winchell  of  the  University,  and 
some  others  appeared  for  the  first  time. 

Among  those  who  came  into  the  association  about  this 
time  were  Professors  E.  Olney,  T.  C.  Abbott,  J.  R.  Boise, 
H.  S.  Frieze,  O.  Hosford,  L.  R.  Fiske,  and  D.  P.  Mayhew. 
Lack  of  space  forbids  extended  notice  of  any  of  these  or 
the  mention  of  others  equally  active.  The  present  writer 
became  a  member  of  the  Association  at  the  meeting  at  Ann 
Arbor  in  April,  1855,  when  the  organization  was  in  the 
third  year  of  its  existence,  and  consequently  had  the  good 
fortune  to  become  acquainted  with  all  the  early  members. 

In  the  remainder  of  this  sketch,  attention  will  be  confined 
mostly  to  the  action  of  the  association  on  matters  bearing 
upon  the  development  of  the  school  system  and  schools  of 
the  State. 

At  the  third  meeting  in  September,  1853,  after  extended 
discussion,  the  Association  voted  to  commence  the  publica- 
tion of  a  monthly  paper,  to  be  named  The  Michigan  Journal 
of  Education  and  7'eachers'  Magazine,  and  appointed  a  com- 
mittee of  five  to  have  entire  charge  of  the  publication.  This 
committee  consisted  of  E.  O.  Haven,  A.  S.  Welch,  J.  M. 
Gregory,  Mrs.  L.  H.  Stone,  and  Miss  M.  Rockwell.  Mr. 
Gregory  was  made  resident  and  managing  editor,  and  the 
first  number  of  the  Journal  was  issued  from  Detroit  in  Janr 
uary,  1854.  We  can  not  trace  the  history  of  the  Journal 
during  the  eight  years  of  its  existence.  Our  interest  in  it 
jies  in  the  fact  that,  under  the  managernent  of  Mr.  Gregory^ 


26o  TOPICS  DISCUSSED 

it  was  one  of  the  most  efficient  agencies  in  pushing  forward 
educational  reforms.  Through  it  the  Association  exerted 
a  powerful  influence  in  securing  and  shaping  educational 
legislation. 

The  question  of  the  "Bible  in  the  Schools,"  or  the  "reli- 
gious question"  was  vigorously  discussed  at  several  meet- 
ings, beginning  with  the  meeting  in  April,  1854.  At  the 
semi-annual  meeting  in  August  of  the  same  year,  the  debate 
was  continued,  and  at  a  later  period  the  subject  was  again 
discussed.  The  action  of  the  Association  upon  this  subject 
tended  to  unify  the  opinions  and  practice  of  the  teachers  of 
the  State,  and  to  prevent  the  adoption  of  too  radical  meas- 
ures by  either  party  to  the  contest. 

The  establishment  of  union  graded  schools  was  strongly 
advocated  by  the  Association  during  the  period  when  such 
schools  were  in  the  experimental  stage,  and  were  encounter- 
ing vigorous  opposition  from  the  conservative  forces  in  the 
community. 

The  first  law  for  the  holding  of  teachers'  institutes  was 
secured  by  the  State  Superintendent  through  the  earnest 
and  vigorous  assistance  of  the  Association,  and  subsequent- 
improvements  were  obtained  largely  by  the  same  assistance. 

In  the  efforts  to  obtain  equal  educational  rights  and  op- 
portunities for  both  sexes,  the  Association  bore  an  impor- 
tant part.  The  first  extended  discussion  of  the  subject  oc- 
curred at  the  meeting  at  Ann  Arbor  in  April,  1855,  and  the 
agitation  continued  until  the  doors  of  the  University  were 
opened  to  women  by  formal  action  of  the  Regents  on  the 
6th  of  January,  1870.  The  war  was  waged  for  fifteen 
years,  and  the  association  may  rightfully  claim  a  large 
share  of  th^  \\Q,noT  in  securing  the  final  result,    At  the  me^t- 


TOPICS  DISCUSSED  261 

ing  following  the  action  of  the  Regents,  the  Association  re- 
solved: "That  there  is  ample  cause  for  congratulation 
among  the  friends  of  education,  in  the  fact  that  since  our 
last  meeting,  women  have  been  granted  full  privileges  with 
men  in  our  State  University  and  Agricultural  College." 

In  the  protracted  struggle  to  secure  effectual  school  super- 
vision, the  Association  was  especially  active.  At  its  semi- 
annual meeting  at  Jackson  in  December,  1855,  the  report 
of  a  committee  previously  appointed  was  discussed  at  length 
and  a  committee  consisting  of  Professors  Gregory,  Boise, 
Welch,  Levi  Bishop,  Esq.,  and  Bradford  Smith  was  appoint- 
ed with  instructions  to  use  all  possible  diligence  to  secure 
the  enactment  of  the  desired  law.  -    . 

A  committee  was  also  appointed  to  prepare  and  present 
to  the  legislature  a  "Revision  of  the  laws  affecting  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Union  Schools."  This  committee  was  com- 
posed of  the  three  eminent  lawyers,  Levi  Bishop,  E.  C. 
Walker  and  S.  L.  Withey. 

The  association  made  vigorous  efforts  to  secure  from  the 
legislature  an  act  appropriating  a  portion  of  the  proceeds 
of  the  sale  of  "Swamp  Lands"  for  educational  purposes 
and  appointed  Professors  Gregory,  Welch  and  Dr.  Stone 
to  urge  this  upon  the  attention  of  the  legislature.  This 
object  was  secured  at  a  later  period. 

It  may  be  a  surprise  to  many  to  learn  that  the  subject  of 
"Township  School  Districts"  was  discussed  by  the  Associa- 
tion as  early  as  1857,  and  the  advantages  of  such  districts 
were  set  forth  in  a  paper  prepared  by  Prof.  Hubbard,  then 
Superintendent  of  the  Schools  at  Adrian.  No  formal  action 
was  taken  but  the  paper  was  requested  for  publication. 

The  report  of  the  executive  committee  in  1858,  after  re- 


^2  SERVICES  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION 

viewing  the  educational  progress  of  the  past  year,  affirmed 
that  no  small  share  of  this  improvement  was  due  to  the 
efforts  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association.  Since  the  or- 
ganization of  the  association,  the  union  school  system  had 
been  carried  rapidly  forward,  the  wages  of  teachers  had  in- 
creased fifty  per  cent,  and  the  teaching  profession  had  **ac- 
quired  a  securer  seat  in  the  affections  and  respect  of  the 
people."  The  influence  of  the  Society  had  extended  to 
every  school  district  in  the  State. 

The  abolition  of  the  "rate  bill"  as  a  necessary  preliminary 
to  making  the  public  schools  absolutely  free,  was  earnestly 
advocated  by  the  Association.  For  several  years  the  Li- 
brary System  received  considerable  attention,  and  frequen 
reports  were  made  by  the  standing  committee  upon  "Re- 
forms in  School  Laws."  In  i860,  this  committee  recom- 
mended "the  abrogation  of  school  districts  and  the  substi- 
tution of  the  township  system,  stating  pretty  fully  and 
clearly  the  advantages  which  would  follow  from  this  change. 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  in  his  report 
for  1859,  gave  emphatic  testimony  to  the  value  of  the  ser- 
vices rendered  by  the  Association  in  the  development  and 
improvement  of  the  school  system.  He  urged  that  the  State 
could  well  afford  to  appropriate  a  sufficient  sum  to  publish 
a  volume  each  year  made  up  of  the  papers  and  addresses 
given  at  the  annual  meetings.  Later  for  some  years,  these 
were  published  in  the  annual  report  of  the  State  Superintend- 
ent, but  a  mistaken  notion  of  economy  led  the  legislature 
recently  to  limit  the  number  of  pages  in  the  report  so  that 
no  room  remained  for  the  proceedings  of  the  Association. 

Up  to  the  outbreak  of  he  civil  war,  the  Association  had 
been  largely  guided  by  the  "Fathers"  of  the  organization, 


DECLINE  OE  INTEREST  263 

and  its  efforts  had  been  directed  more  to  the  securing  of 
reforms  in  school  laws  and  improvements  in  methods  of 
school  administration  than  to  the  development  of  educational 
principles  or  the  discovery  of  better  methods  of  teaching, 
although  those  had  not  been  altogether  neglected.  During 
the  great  war  and  for  some  time  afterwards,  the  vigor  and 
usefulness  of  the  organization  suffered  some  decline. 

The  feeling  existing  among  many  of  the  most  progressive 
teachers  in  the  State  was  expressed  by  the  editor  of  the 
Michigan  Teacher  in  an  article  published  in  the  October 
number  of  that  journal  for  1874.  He  wrote:  "The  regular 
winter  meeting  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  will  be 
held  this  year,  of  course — from  the  force  of  habit,  if  for 
nothing  else.  We  suppose  the  program  to  be  even  now  in 
the  early  stages  of  preparation.  But  if  the  meeting  of  this 
winter  is  to  be  as  nearly  barren  of  interest  and  results  as 
most  of  the  meetings  of  late  years  have  been,  it  may  about 
as  well  be  omitted  apart  from  the  pleasant  social  opportuni- 
ties it  will  present.  'Vox  et  preterca  nihil' — that  is  the  gen- 
eral record.  Even  the  annual  publication,  for  the  last  two 
years,  of  the  transactions  in  part,  has  hardly  justified  the 
existence  of  the  Association,  so  far  as  the  results  have  come 
to  the  surface.  In  no  respect  are  we  aware  that  the  So- 
ciety has  been  a  force  in  determining  the  educational  legis- 
lation of  the  State,  in  fixing  the  character  of  its  larger  insti- 
tutions of  learning,  or  even  in  the  improvement  of  methods 
in  the  common  schools.  [This  was  not  true  of  the  Associa- 
tion during  the  first  ten  years  of  its  existence.]  In  these 
views  we  are  conscious  of  being  at  one  with  very  many 
of  our  educators  who  have  attended  the  meetings,  or  have 
been  content  to  stay  away  and  read  the  proceedings.    *    *    * 


264  INI^LUENCE  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION 

Without  a  'new  departure'  it  threatens  to  fall  into  absolute 
decay  and  worthlessness." 

The  criticisms  of  the  editor  of  the  Teacher  were  partly 
true  and  deserved,  but  were  altogether  too  sweeping.  The 
Association  had,  at  an  earlier  period,  been  a  vigorous  and 
well-directed  power,  and  had  been  directly  instrumental  in 
securing  a  number  of  needed  and  important  reforms  and 
improvements  in  the  school  laws  of  the  State.  Unfortu- 
nately, for  various  reasons,  it  had  fallen  from  its  high  posi- 
tion of  influence,  and  required  some  radical  changes  and 
readjustments  of  its  working  machinery  to  adapt  itself  to 
the  changed  conditions  of  educational  affairs  in  the  State. 
There  was,  however,  sufficient  vitality  in  the  organization, 
and  a  sufficiently  clear  comprehension  of  the  demands  of  the 
times,  to  bring  about  the  necessary  modifications  at  no  dis- 
tant time. 

On  several  occasions  the  Association  secured,  mainly  by 
the  private  and  judicious  efforts  of  some  of  its  leading 
members,  the  nomination  of  the  man  of  its  choice  for  the 
office  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  It  had  in- 
fluence in  the  selection  of  members  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. These  educational  offices  had  not  then  come  to  be 
regarded  as  subject  to  political  bargaining,  or  political  reg- 
ulations as  to  length  of  service.  Hon.  Witter  J.  Baxter 
served  on  the  Board  of  Education  nearly  twenty-five  years. 
Hon.  J.  M.  Gregory  held  the  office  of  State  Superintendent 
six  years,  and  would  have  been  elected  for  another  term  if 
he  had  not  absolutely  refused  to  serve  longer.  Professor 
O.  Hosford  held  the  office  eight  years.  It  was  an  evil  day 
when  the  doctrine  of  "rotation  of  office"  and  two  terms  only 
came  to  be  applied  to  the  Superintendency. 


BEGINNING  OF  IMPROVEMENT  265 

The  recovery  from  this  condition  dates  from  the  meet- 
ing of  1874,  since  which  time  the  association  has  enjoyed 
in  general  a  steady  growth  in  efficiency  and  usefulness. 

At  that  meeting,  the  report  of  the  executive  committee, 
written  by  the  then  President,  said:  "During  the  last  half 
dozen  years  there  has  been  a  growing  impression  that  the 
association  is  not  accomplishing  all  that  it  ought  to  accom- 
plish ;  that  it  is  not  exerting  the  influence,  which  legitimately 
belongs  to  it,  upon  the  educational  institutions  of  the  State ; 
that  it  is  not,  as  it  should  be,  a  grand  educational  force, 
helping  largely  to  fashion  public  sentiment,  and  direct  pub- 
lic action." 

It  was  suggested  that  an  effort  should  be  made  to  enlarge 
the  scope  of  the  organization,  and  that  the  body  should  be 
divided,  for  convenience  and  efficiency  of  action,  into  ap- 
propriate sections  or  divisions. 

After  considerable  discussion,  the  executive  committee 
was  directed  to  make  provision  for  carrying  out  the  recom- 
mendations, of  the  report,  as  far  as  practicable;  to  make  in 
fact  an  essential  change  in  the  form  of  the  organization. 
This  meeting  was  generally  regarded  as  introducing  a  new 
era  in  the  history  of  the  association.  At  the  next  meeting 
the  plan  was  practically  adopted  and,  with  modifications 
from  time  to  time,  has  continued  to  guide  the  managemeilt 
of  the  association. 

From  this  time  on  the  work  of  the  association  has  grad- 
ually taken  a  wider  range,  until  it  now  includes  discussions 
of  subjects  belonging  to  all  grades  of  schools  and  all  depart- 
ments of  instruction.  While  improvements  in  the  school 
laws  and  in  the  school  system  generally  still  receive  attention, 
subjects  and  methods  of  instruction,  courses  of  studies,  the 


^^^  ADDITIONAL  NAlvmS  OF  MS^MB^RS 

unification  of  the  different  grades  of  schools,  the  certifica- 
tion of  teachers  and  the  supervision  of  the  work  of  teachers, 
and  other  related  topics  have  received  consideration. 

To  the  list  of  the  earliest  members  of  the  association  al- 
ready given,  the  names  of  others  who  became  members  a 
little  later,  most  of  whom  are  unknown  to  the  present  gen- 
eration, should  be  added.  The  list  is  not  intended  to  be 
complete,  but  it  includes  most  of  those  who  were  active  in 
the  association  for  considerable  time. 

Dr.  E.  B.  Fairfield,  for  many  years  President  of  Hills- 
dale College,  lieutenant  governor  of  the  State  for  one  term, 
still  living  at  a  ripe  old  age  at  Oberlin,  Ohio ;  E.  J.  Boyd,  for 
some  time  Principal  of  a  private  school  for  girls  at  Monroe ; 
Ruth  Hoppin,  for  a  long  while  Preceptress  of  the  Normal 
School  at  Ypsilanti ;  John  Goodison,  for  many  years  Pro- 
fessor in  the  Normal  School;  C.  L.  Whitney,  for  a  time 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  Michigan  Teacher,  who  left  teach- 
ing to  engage  in  business ; 

E.  Danforth,  who  left  Michigan  for  a  better  position  in 
New  York ;  D.  B.  Briggs,  who  later  served  two  terms  as 
State  Superintendent;  Julia  A.  King,  still  active  as  a  Pro- 
fessor of  Histo'-y  in  the  Normal  College; 

John  Richards,  for  some  time  Professor  in  Albion  Col- 
lege; E.  P.  Church,  whose  last  work  was  in  the  school  for 
the  blind  at  Lansing;  U.  W.  Lawton,  still  enjoying  a  quiet 
life  at  Jackson;  J.  M.  Ballou,  later  an  efficient  member  of 
the  State  Board  of  Education;  Lewis  McLouth,  long  a 
Professor  in  the  Normal  School,  still  at  work  in  the  east; 
W.  S.  Perry,  for  many  years  Superintendent  of  the  schools 
in  Ann  Arbor;  E.  A.  btrong,  still  in  active  service  as  Pro- 
fessor in  the  Normal  College ;  , 


FII^TmTH  ANl^uAL  MEETING  iS; 

Duane  Doty,  for  some  time  Superintendent  of  Schools 
in  Detroit,  later  in  Chicago ;  Z.  Truesdel,  many  years  Super- 
intendent of  schools  in  Flint,  later  first  Superintendent  of 
the  State  Public  School  at  Coldwater;  H.  A.  Ford,  several 
years  editor  of  the  Michigan  Teacher ;  H.  S.  Way  land,  Pro- 
fessor for  a  time  in  Kalamazoo  College ;  W.  H.  Payne,  still 
serving  a  second  period  as  Professor  of  the  Science  and 
Art  of  Teaching  in  the  State  University,  for  several  years  one 
of  the  most  active  and  efficient  members  of  the  Association ; 
B.  A.  Hinsdale,  who  came  into  the  Association  at  a  some- 
what later  period,  and  is  still  remembered  for  his  efficient 
services  in  the  University  as  well  as  in  the  Association. 
Space  compels  the  omission  of  some  other  names  of  com- 
paratively early  members,  and  of  all  who  have  become  mem- 
bers in  recent  years.  It  is  well  that  the  "Fathers"  be  re- 
membered at  least  by  name. 

The  fiftieth  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  was  held 
at  vSaginaw  on  December  29th,  30th  and  31st,  1902. 

One  session  was  devoted  to  exercises  appropriate  to  the 
occasion.  Three  papers  were  read  ;  the  first  on  "Educational 
conditions  in  1852,  and  the  Beginnings  of  the  State  Teachers' 
Association,"  prepared  by  D.  Putnam ;  the  second  by  Austin 
George,  upon  "Some  of  the  early  active  members  of  the 
Association" ;  and  the  third  by  H.  R.  Pattengill  on  "Some 
Things  which  the  Association  has  been  influential  in  ac- 
complishing." 

It  will  be  in  harmony  with  the  purpose  of  this  sketch  to 
quote  a  portion  of  Mr.  Pattengill's  paper.     He  said : 

"In  the  early  part  of  its  history,  the  influence  of  the  Asso- 
ciation was  very  great  indeed.  For  many  years  nearly  all 
the  legislation  pertaining  to  educational  matters  was  directly 


268  SUMMARY  OF  WORK 

the  result  of  work  done  in  this  Association.  Naturally,  as 
the  educational  work  of  the  State  became  established,  the 
immediate  results  of  the  Association's  deliberations  were 
not  so  pronounced.  Time  permits  us  merely  to  cite  in  the 
most  cursory  manner  the  important  features  of  its  mighty 
work.  It  is  of  course,  impossible  to  determine  just  how 
much  influence  one  of  several  factors  has  in  accomplishing 
a  purpose,  but  it  seems  hardly  possible  for  anyone  who  has 
made  any  study  of  the  subject  to  doubt  for  an  instant  the 
Association's  mighty  influence  in — 

1.  Establishing  an  esprit  du  corps  among  teachers. 

2.  Elevating  educational  ideals. 

3.  Introducing    Michigan's    foremost    teachers    to    the 

teachers  of  the  State,  either  personally  or  through 
their  contributed  articles. 

4.  Bringing  to  Michigan  educators  of  national  promi- 

nence; e.  g.  Horace  Mann,  Francis  W.  Parker,  E. 
E.  White,  etc. 

5.  Improving  methods  of  teaching. 

6.  Abolishing  the   "odious   rate   bill,"   and   establishing 

free  schools. 

7.  Establishing  an  excellent  system  of  high  schools. 

8.  Aiding  the  cause  of  co-edi>r.P,tion  in  the  State  Uni- 

versity. 

9.  Founding  a  ''Journal  of  education,"  which  in  the  early 

days  was  a  valuable  ally  of  the  department  of  edu- 
cation. 

10.  Fostering  teachers'  institutes. 

11.  Securing  better  supervision  of  schools  and  examina- 

tion of  teachers. 

12.  Establishing  and  maintaining  both  district  and  town- 

ship libraries. 

13.  Greatly  improving  the  moral  and  religious  instruction 

in  the  schools. 

14.  Making  the  school  month  twenty  days. 


PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION  269 

15.  Establishing  normal  schools  and  training  classes. 

16.  Securing  good  compulsory  school  laws. 

17.  Promoting   manual   training,    kind'ergarten,   physical 

culture,  music  and  drawing  in  the  schools. 

18.  Repealing  the  abominable  law  of  State  publication  of 

text-books. 

19.  Securing  laws  favorable  to  free  text-books. 

20.  Educating  the  people  on  rural  high  schools,  consoli- 

dation of  rural  schools,  and  centralization." 

It  will  be  readily  conceded  that  the  things  enumerated  in 
this  list  differ  much  in  relative  value,  but  in  the  main  the 
enumeration  is  a  just  one,  and  the  Association  may  right- 
fully be  proud  of  its  record  of  fifty  years  of  labor. 

The  Presidents  of  the  Association  during  the  first  twenty- 
five  years  of  its  existence,  to  1877,  were  the  following : 

Principal  A.  S.  Welch,  Hon.  John  M.  Gregory,  Professor 
Joseph  Estabrook,  President  James  A.  B.  Stone,  Superin- 
tendent Franklin  Hubbard,  Professor  A.  Winchell,  Princi- 
pal E.  J.  Boyd,  Professor  E.  L.  Ripley,  Professor  John  M. 
B.  Sill,  President  E.  B.  Fairfield,  Professor  O.  Hosford, 
Professor  D.  Putnam,  Superintendent  W.  H.  Payne,  Pro- 
fessor D.  P.  Mayhew,  Professor  H.  L.  Wayland,  Superin- 
tendent T.  C.  Abbott,  Supermtendent  Duane  Doty,  Princi- 
pal J.  F.  Nichols,  President  J.  B.  Angell,  Superintendent 
H.  S.  Tarbell,'  Superintendent  W.  S.  Perry,  Professor  C. 
F.  R.  Bellows,  Professor  Edward  Olney. 

The  general  policy  of  the  Association  gave  its  presiding 
officers  only  a  single  term.  In  a  few  cases  the  rule  was  dis- 
regarded and  a  President  was  elected  for  a  second  term. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  historian  of  1952  will  find 
abundant  material  to  put  to  the  credit  of  he  Association  in 
a  summary  of  the  work  of  a  second  half-century. 


INDEX. 

Additional  Normal  School  253. 

Affiliated  Schools,  97. 

Agricultural  College,  233. 

Angell,  President,  on  Affiliation  of  High  Schools,  95, 

Appendix  251. 

Blind,  School  for,  237;  Superintendents  of,  239;  Employment  Insti- 
tution for,  254. 

Boys,  Industrial  School  for,  239. 

Cadillac  on  Education,  2. 

Cass,  Gen.  Lewis,  5,  10,  11,  13. 

Catholepistemiad,  S,  6. 

Certification  of  Teachers,  early,  149;  by  Township  Inspectors,  149; 
by  County  Officers,  151-154;  Grades  of  Certificates,  153; 
by  State  Board  of  Education,  159;  by  Normal  Schools,  160; 
by  University,  Colleges,  and  some  Cities,  162;  of  Kinder- 
garten and  Drawing  Teachers,  163. 

Co-education,  Sentiments  of  Teachers  and  Others  as  to,  1850  to 
i860,  191. 

Colleges,  Charters  of,  etc.,  44-48. 

Compulsory  attendance,  122-125. 

Comstock,  O.  C,  Views  of,  on  Union  Districts,  75;  on  Religious 
Instruction,   213. 

Conditions,  School,  at  close  of  Territorial  Period,  17. 

Constitutional  Provisions  as  to  Education,  23-33. 

Conventions,  Constitutional,  22-25. 

Cooley,  Justice,  on  First  Territorial  School  Law,  ^^, 

Crary,  Isaac  C,  Work  of,  for  Schools,  20-25. 

Deaf,  School  for  the  235-237. 

Principals  of  School,  235. 

District  School,  Officers  of,  55,  65;  Relation  to  other  Parts  of 
School  System,  71-74;  Increase  of  Resources,  116. 

Education,  Importance  of,  36;  Equality  of  to  Both  Sexes,  184-198, 

Educational  Funds,  248. 

Equality  of  Educational  Rights,  184-198, 

270 


INDEX  271 

Examination  of  Teachers  and  Certification,  149-163;  Change  of 
Time  for,  254. 

Feeble-minded,  Home  and  School  for,  245. 

Free  Schools,  Views  of  Supt.  Pierce  on,  117;  Debate  on,  in  Con- 
vention of  1850,  26;  Discussion  by  State  Association,  120; 
in  Detroit,  119. 

Frieze,  Professor,  on  Affiliation  of  High  Schools,  94. 

Funds,  Educational,  248;  Increase  of,  no;  for  Teachers'  Wages, 
114;  from  the  State,  108;  from  the  Township,  in;  from 
the  District,  Village,  City,  113;  Table,  116. 

Girls,  Education  of,  in  Early  Times,  185-190;  in  Territorial  Period, 
190;  in  the  Branches  of  the  University,  191;  Industrial 
Home  for,  241. 

Government,  Early  Form  of,  in  the  Territory,  3;  Modified,  10. 

Graded  or  Union  Schools,  Development  of,  75-78;  First  in  the 
State,  79. 

Gregory,   Superintendent,   on   Courses   of   Studies,   99. 

High  Schools,  Authority  to  Establish,  88;  Kalamazoo  Case,  91; 
Established  by  Voluntary  Action,  93 ;  Affiliated  with  Univer- 
sity, 94-96;  Languages  in,  102. 

Home  for  the  Feeble-minded,  245. 

Hosford,  Superintendent,  Views  of,  on  Support  of  High  Schools,  89. 

Industrial  School  for  Boys,  239. 

Industrial  Home  for  Girls,  241. 

Institutes  .Teachers',   133-136. 

Journal  of  Education,  259. 

Kindergartens,  Law  for  Establishing,   106;   Teachers  of,   163. 

Languages,  Debate  on  Teaching  of,  in  Convention  of  1850,  28; 
Instruction  to  be  in  the  English  Language,  28. 

Law,  First  School  in  the  Territory,  4. 

Libraries,  Provision  for,  57;  Chapter  on  System,  176-183;  Sum- 
mary of  Present  Provisions,  182;  Legislation  of  1903,  255. 

Manual  Training,  106. 

Mayhew,  Superintendent,  on  Graded  Schools,  80. 

Mill  Tax,  112. 

Monteith,  Rev.  John,  5. 

Moral  and  Religious  Instruction,  Chapter  on,  199-222. 

Music  Teachers,  163. 

Normal  Schools,  136-142;  Diplomas  and  Certificates  of,  i6p. 

Perry,  W,  S.,  on  High  Schools,  89, 


t'NlVERs/T 


272  INDEX 

Pierce,  John  D.,  20-25. 

Preparation  of  Teachers,  Chapter  on,  128-148;  Summary  of  Present 
Facilities  for,  147. 

Principles,  General,  of  Education  as  Stated  by  Superintendent 
Pierce,  42. 

Rate  Bill  abolished,  121 ;  discussed  by  Teachers'  Association,  262. 

References  to  Authorities,  249. 

Religious  Question,  Chapter  on,  199-222;  Views  of  Superintendent 
Pierce,  200 ;  of  Mrs.  Schoolcraft,  201 ;  of  Dr.  Duffield,  202 ; 
in  Early  Public  Schools,  203;  Horace  Mann's  Controversy 
in  Mass.,  204 ;  Controversy  in  New  York,  205 ;  Attack  upon 
the  University,  207;  Circulars  of  Superintendent  Sawyer, 
210;  Opinions  of  Superintendent  Comstock,  213;  Contro- 
versy in  Detroit,  214;  Discussion  in  the  Legislature,  216; 
Discussions   in    State   Teachers'   Association,  218-222. 

Richard,  Father,  Schools  of,  2. 

Schools  in  the  Territorial  Period,  Chapter  I,  1-19;  Statute  of  1817, 
S;  of  1821,  8;  of  1827,  12-14;  Efforts  of  Governor  Cass, 
10;  Support  of  Schools,  15;  as  to  Teachers,  16;  Summary 
of  Conditions,  17-19. 

School  System  of  State,  52-57;  Summary  of,  62-64. 

State  Board  of  Education,  Creation  of,  226;  Powers  and  Duties, 
226-230;  Duties  Enlarged,  253. 

State  Superintendent,  Powers  and  Duties  of,  59-61 ;  223-232 ;  De- 
puty, 228. 

State  Public  School  for  Dependent  Children,  242-245. 

State  Teachers'  Association,  Chapter  on,  256-269;  Summary  of 
Work,  268;  Presidents  of,  269;  Early  Members  of,  258; 
Later  Members,  266;  Fiftieth  Anniversary  Meeting,  267. 

Statistics,  Tables  of.  Relating  to  Children,  247;  to  Teachers,  248; 
to  Financial  Conditions,  248. 

Taxation  for  Support  of  Schools,  Debate  on,  in  Convention  of 
1850,  28;  See  Chapter  IX, 

Teachers,  Provisions  as  to,  in  Territorial  Laws,  16;  Institutes,  135; 
Wages  of,  50;  Preparation  of,  128;  Classes  for  in  Union 
Schools,  143 ;  Courses  for,  in  Colleges,  147. 

Text-books,  Chapter  on,  164-175;  Early,  164;  Proposed  Uniformity, 
165 ;  List  Prepared  by  vState  Superintendent,  166 ;  Discussion 
on,  by  Superintendent  Tarbell,  168 ;  by  Superintendent  Gass, 
170;  on  Hygiene,  171;  Free  in  Saginaw,  172;  General  Law 
as  to  Free,  172;  Present  Conditions  Summarized,  17:^. 


INDEX 


273 


Township  School  Officers,  55. 

University,  Territorial,  5,  8;  Organization  of,  57-59;  Branches  of, 
58;  Religious  Question  in,  207-209;  Certificates  to  Teach- 
ers, 162;   Science  and  Art  of  Teaching  in,  144-146. 

Union  or  Graded  Schools,  Lnapter  VI,  75-83 ;  Advantages  of,  77-81 ; 
First  Law  as  to,  76;  Circulars  for  Information  as  to,  80-82. 

Wages,  Amount  of.  Paid  to  Teachers,  114. 

Women,  Higher  Education  of.  Discussed  by  Superintendent  Shear- 
man, 193 ;  by  Superintendent  Mayhew,  195 ;  Report  to 
Regents  on,  196;  President  Haven  on,  196;  University 
opened  to  Women,  197. 


f\  LIST  OF  BOOKS 

PUBLISHED  BY 

G^EO.  ^WAHR 

Publisher  and  Bookseller  to  the  University  of  Michigan, 
Ann  Arbor. 


Any  book  in  this  list  will  be  sent,  carriage  free,  to  any  address  in  the 
world  on  receipt  of  price  named. 

ANN  ARBOR  COOK  BOOK,  THE— Compiled  by  the  Ladies'  Aid 
Society  of  the  Congregational  Church.  Second  Edition,  Revised 
and  Enlarged.     8  vo.     607  pages.     Full  Oil  Cloth,  $1.50. 

ANATOMY. —  Outlines  of  Anatomy,  A  Guide  to  the  Dissection  of  the 
Human  Body.  Based  on  a  Text-Book  of  Anatomy.  By  A??ierican 
Authors,     54  pages.     Leatherette,  50  cents. 

The  objects  of  this  outline  are  to  inform  the  student  what  structure  are  found  in 
each  region  and  where  the  description  of  each  structure  is  found  in  American  Text- 
Book  of  Anatomy. 

BO  WEN. — A  Teachers^  Course  in  Physical  Training.  By  Wilbur  P. 
'  Bowen,  Director  of  Physical  Training,  Michigan  State  Normal  Col- 
lege. A  brief  study  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  gymnastic 
training,  designed  for  Teachers  of  the  Public  Schools.  183  pages. 
43  illustrations.     Cloth,  $1.00. 

BUNKER. — Cases  on  Guaranty  and  Suretyship.  By  Robert  E.  Bunker, 
of  the  Department  of  Law,  University  of  Michigan.  8vo.  300 
pages.     Buckram,  ^2.00. 

CHEEVER. — Select  Methods  in  Inorganic  Quantitative  Analysis.  By 
Byron  W.  Cheever,  A.M.,  M.D.,  late  Acting  Professor  of  Metal- 
lurgy in  the  University  of  Michigan.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  Frank 
Clemes  Smith,  Professor  of  Geology,  Mining  and  Metallurgy  in  the 
"  State  School  of  Mines,  Rapid  City,  S.  D.  Parts  I.  and  II.  Third 
edition.     i2mo.     $1.75. 

The  first  part  of  this  book,  as  indicated  by  the  title,  consists  of  Laboratory  Notes 
for  a  Beginner's  Course  in  Quantitative  Analysis.  It  considers  the  subjects  of 
Gravimetric  and  Volumetric  Analysis,  for  beginners,  by  means  of  the  chemical 
analysis  of  a  set  of  substances,  properly  numbered,  in  each  case  giving  the  methods 
to  be  followed  in  such  analysis;  also  the  methods  for  calculating  and  preparing 
volumetric  standard  solutions,  generally  following  the  course  offered  by  Professor 
Cheever  to  his  students.  It  also  considers  the  methods  for  the  determination  of  the 
specific  gravities  of  various  liquids  and  solids. 

Although  a  number  of  the  analyses  contained  in  Part  I.  may  be  of  only  approxi- 
mate accuracy,  and  of  small  commercial  value,  such  are  yet  included  with  a  special 
purpose,  to  wit  :^ — that  ihey  may  supply  the  student  with  a  wider  range  of  work  and  a 
greater  diversity  of  chemical  manipulation.  This  was  Professor  Cheever's  idea, 
and  it  is  certainly  a  good  one,  especially  since,  in  most  cases,  the  work  of  the  begin- 
ner simply  serves  to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  careful  scrutiny  of  details  and 
methods  for  practical  work  in  the  future. 

Part  I.  is  offered,  then,  for  the  use  of  schools  and  colleges,  and  it  is  intended  to 
supply  a  source  of  elementary  information  upon  the  subject  of  Quantitative  Chemi- 
cal Analysis  rarely  offered  in  such  form  in  v.'orks  upon  that  subject — Preface. 

The  author  was  for  many  years  Professor  of  Metallurgy  in  the  University  of 
Michigan,  and  the  methods  here  presented  are  those  mostly  offered  by  him  to  his 
students.  As  a  beginner's  book  in  quantitative  analysis,  it  will  be  found  eminently 
practical,  and  it  can  be  honestly  recommende'^  to  the  student  who  desires  a  source 
of  elementary  information  upon  this  branch  of  applied  science.  The  book  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  first  consisting  of  laboratory  notes  for  beginners.  The  subjects 
of  gravimetric  and  volumetric  analysis  are  considered  by  means  of  the  chemical 
analysis  of  a  set  of  substances,  properly  numbered,  in  each  case  giving  the  methods 
to  be  followed  in  such  analysis,  and  also  the  methods  of  calculating  and  preparing 
volumetric  standard  solutions,  etc.  Methods  for  the  determination  of  specific 
gravities  of  various  liquids  and  solids  are  also  considered. 


2  Publications  of  George   Wahr,  Ann  Arbor. 

Part  II.  contains  a  number  of  select  methods  in  inorganic  quantitative  analysis, 
such  as  the  analysis  of  limestone,  iron  ores,  manganese  ores,  steel,  the  analysis  of 
coal,  water,  mineral  phosphates,  smelling  ores,  lead  slags,  copper,  arsenic,  bismuth, 
etc.     A  chapter  on  reagents  concludes  the  work. — Pharmaceulical  Era. 

CLASSEN -HARRIM AN. —QuanH^aiive  Ana/ysts.  By  Alexender 
Classen,  Director  of  the  Laboratory  of  Inorganic  Chemistry  and 
Electro  Chemistry  in  the  Royal  Technical  School,  Aachen.  Author- 
ized Translation  from  the  Fifth  German  Edition,  with  an  Appendix 
on  the  Qualitative  Analysis  of  Minerals,  Ores,  Slags,  Metals,  Alloys, 
Etc.,  Including  the  Rare  Elements,  by  Norman  F.  Harriman,  Assist- 
ant in  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  79  Illustrations. 
Handsomely  bound  in  half  leather,  ^4.00. 

What  the  London  Chemical  News  says:  "  One  of  the  features  of  Classen's  book 
that  makes  it  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  those  beginning  the  study  of  quantitative 
analysis,  is  the  practical  arrangement  of  the  subjects  treated:  after  a  chapter  on 
general  operations,  the  author  takes  up  first  crystallizable  salts,  then  alloys  and 
minerals,  and  eventually  advances  to  ores,  slags,  waters,  etc.,  of  increasing  diffi- 
culty. The  instructions  in  each  example  are  very  clear,  being  the  result  of  long 
experience  as  a  teacher  and  as  an  expert  analyst.  The  section  on  pig-iron,  steel, 
spiegeieisen,  ferromanganese,  etc.,  seems  to  be  quite  full,  occupying  forty  pages; 
an  equal  number  of  pages  is  occupied  with  potable  waters  and  mineral  waters,  while 
the  section  on  organic  analysis  is  rather  brief,  as  might  be  expected  in  a  work  of 
this  description. 

Volumetric  analysis  is  treated  separately  (pp.  407-4.59),  but  the  methods  in  this 
section  are  often  referred  to  in  the  body  of  the  work.  Qualitative  methods,  with 
special  reference  to  minerals,  ores,  slags,  metals,  and  alloys,  are  described  in  a 
voluminous  appendix.  The  volume  closes  with  several  useful  tables  and  a  full 
index. 

The  translator  has  done  his  share  of  the  work  with  linguistic  skill  born  of  famil- 
iarity with  German  and  an  appreciation  of  the  requirements  of  good  English.  He 
has  strengthened  the  volume  by  introducing  some  processes  that  had  been  over- 
looked by  the  German  author,  notably  the  method  for  the  proximate  analysis  of  coal 
recommended  by  the  Committee  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Handy's  rapid 
Tolumetric  method  for  phosphorus  in  pig-iron  (titration  of  the  phosphomolybdate 
precipitate),  and  some  of  the  methods  of  that  eminent  expert  on  rock  analysis.  Dr. 
W  F  Hillebrand,  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  whose  '  Bulletin  "  is  frequently 
cited." 

COOLEY. — Dynamics  of  Reciprocating  Engines.  By  Mortimer  E,  Cooley, 
M.  E.,  Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  University  of  Michigan. 
Pamphlet.     23  pages.     25  cents. 

DXWIS.— Plane  Table.  By  Joseph  B.  Davis,  C.  E.,  Professor  of  Geodesy 
and  Surveying,  University  of  Michigan.     64  pages.     Cloth,  45  cents. 

DeCHANCY. — Scheme  for  Qualitative  Analysis.  By  Julian  L.  DeChancy. 
A  complete  Qualitative  Chemistry  on  a  sheet  for  convenient  use  in 
the  laboratory.     Chart,  25  cents. 

DOCK. — Outlines  of  Case  Taking  as  Used  in  the  Medical  Clinic  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan.  By  George  Dock,  A.  M.,  M.  D.  Professor  of 
Medicine,  University  of  Michigan.     32  pages.     Cloth,  25  cents, 

D'OOGE. — Helps  to  the  Study  of  Classical  Mythology;  for  the  Loxver 
Grades  and  Secondary  Scheols.  By  B.  L.  D'Ooge,  Professor  in  the 
Michigan  State  Normal  College.    12  mo.    180  pages.    Cloth,  45  cents. 

A  bibliography  based  on  practical  experience.  The  author  is  a  professor  in  the 
Michigan  State  Normal  College.  As  the  myths  of  all  nations  manifest  themselves 
first  in  religion,  secondly  in  art,  and  third  in  literature,  these  reading  references  are 
grouped  in  the  above  classes.  One  section  is'  devoted  to  the  study  of  mythology  in 
the  grades,  and  an  introductory  chapter  gives  hints  for  teaching  the  subject  in  the 
lower  grades.  The  books  suggested  in  the  body  of  the  work  are  given  in  one  alpha- 
bet at  the  end,  with  publishers  and  prices;  there  are  also  blank  pages  for  additional 
references,  and  a  good  general  index.— PWit/iis/ierg  Weekly, 


Publications  of  George    Wahr,  Ann  Arbor.  3 

DOW. — Outlines  and  References   in  European  History.     For   the    use 
especially  of  Students  in  History    i  and  2,  University  of    Michigan. 
Part  I.  and  II.     From    the  Fourth  to  the  Thirteenth  Century.     By 
Earle  Wilbur  Dow,  University  of  Michigan.     42  pages.    Pamphlet. 
Each  35  cents. 
DWYER. —  Cases  on  Private  International  Law.     By  John   W.  Dwyer, 
University  of  Michigan.     8vo.      509  pages.     Buckram,  $2.50. 
This  is  a  very  excellent  collection  of  cases  on  private  international  law  made  by 
Mr.  Dwyer,  covering  a  variety  of  subjects,  and  is  intended  especially  for  the  use  of 
students,  though  certain  to  prove  interesting  and  valuable  to  all  practitioners. — Al- 
bany Law  lournal, 

DWYER. — Law  and  Procedure  of  United  States  Courts.  By  John  W. 
Dwyer,  LL.  M,,  author  of  "Cases  on  Private  International  Law." 
Instructor  in  the  Law  Department  of  the  University  of  Michigan. 
8vo.  361  pages.  Bound  in  Buckram,  $2.75.  Sheep,  $3.50. 
The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  give  a  brief  and  concise  statement  of  the  organiza- 
tion, jurisdiction  and  practice  of  the  various  courts  of  our  national  government.  It 
is  intended  as  an  elementary  work  for  students  in  law  schools,  students  in  law 
offices  and  for  young  lawyers  who  have  not  received  systematic  instruction  in  this 
subject.  In  stating  the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts,  the  author  has  inserted  a  number 
of  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court.  This  valuable  feature  of  the  book  cannot 
fail  to  commend  itself  to  students  and  instructors  alike.  Similarly,  the  object  of 
the  chapter  on  the  history  of  the  United  States  is  to  remind  the  student  of  the  cir- 
cumstances as  they  existed  at  the  time  our  government  was  formed — to  recall  the 
principal  events  in  our  historical  development,  so  that  the  constitutional  provisions 
may  be  interpreted  in  their  true  light.  The  author  asserts,  truly,  that  a  knowledge 
of  this  branch  of  the  law  is  more  necessary  at  this  time  than  ever  before,  because  of 
the  steady  increase  of  litigation,  arising  from  the  rapid  growth  and  reaching  out  of 
the  business  of  the  country  and  the  bringing  of  certain  questions  within  federal 
control.  The  book  is  exceedingly  well  arranged,  containing  besides  tables  of  cases 
and  tables  of  contents,  a  copious  index.  It  cannot  fail  to  prove  highly  useful  for 
the  purposes  intended.  We  can  heartily  commend  it  to  instructors  and  students. — 
Albany  Law  Journal. 

DZIOBEK. — Mathematical    Theories    of   Planetary    Motions.       By     Dr. 
Otto  Dziobek,  Privatdocent  in  the  Royal  Technical  High  School  of 
Berlin,    Charlottenburg.     Translated  by    Mark  W.  Harrington,  for- 
merly Chief  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  and  Professor  of 
Astronomy  and  Director  of   the  Observatory   at    the    University   of 
Michigan,  President  of  the    University  of    Washington,  and   Wm.  J. 
Hussey,  Assistant  Professor  of  Astronomy  in  the  Leland  Stanford, 
Jr.  University.     8vo.     294  pages.     $3.50. 
The  determination  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  an  important  problem 
in  and  for  itself,  and  also  on  account  of  the  influence  it  has  exerted  on  the  develop- 
ment of  mathematics      It  has  engaged  the  attention  of  the  greatest  mathematicians, 
and,  in  the  course  of  their   not  altogether  successful  attempts  to  solve  it,  they  have 
displayed   unsurpassed  ingenuity.    The  methods  devised  by  them  have  proved  use- 
ful, not  only  in  this  problem,  but  have  also  largely  determined  the  course  of  advance 
in  other  branches  of  mathematics.    Analytical  mechanics,  beginning  with  Newton, 
and   receiving  a   finished  clearness  from  Lagrange,  is  especially  indebted  to  this 
problem,  and  in  turn    analytical  mechanics  has  been  so  suggestive  in  method  as  to 
determine  largely  both  the  direction  and  rapidity  of  the  advancement  of  mathemat- 
ical scienoe. 

Hence,  when  it  is  desired  to  illustrate  the  abstract  theories  of  analytical  mechan- 
ics, the  profundity  of  the  mathematics  of  the  problem  of  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  its  powerful  influence  on  the  historical  development  of  this 
science  and  finally  the  dignity  of  its  object,  all  point  to  it  as  most  suitable  for  this 
purpose. 

This  work  is  intended  not  merely  as  an  introduction  to  the  special  study  of 
astronomy,  but  rather  for  the  student  of  mathematics  who  desires  an  insight  into  the 
creations  of  his  masters  in  this  field.  The  lack  of  a  text-book,  giving,  within  moder- 
ate limits  and  in  a  strictly  scientific  manner,  the  principles  of  mathematical  astron- 
omy in  their  present  remarkably  simple  and  lucid  form,  is  undoubtedly  the  reason 
why  so  many  mathematicians  extend  their  knowledge  of  the  solar  system  but  little 
beyond  Kepler's  law.  The  author  has  endeavored  to  meet  this  need,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  produce  a  book  which  shall  be  so  near  the  present  state  of  the  science 
as  to  include  recent  investigations  and  to  indicate  unsettled  questions. 


4  Publications  of  George    Wahr,  Ann  Arbor. 

FARRAH-DWYER.— Crtj<?j  on  the  Law  of  Husband  and  Wife.  By 
Albert  J.  Farrah,  Dean  of  the  Law  Department  of  the  John  B. 
Stetson  University,  Deland,  Florida,  and  John  W.  Dwyer,  author  of 
Cases  on  Private  International  Law,  and  Instructor  of  Law  in  the 
Department  of  Law  of  the  University  of  Michigan.  8vo.  488 
pages.     Buckram,  $2.50. 

FLORER. — A  Guide  for  the  Study  of  KiehV  s  Burg  Neideck  with  Ques- 
tions for  Grammar  Review.  By  Warren  Washburn  Florer,  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan.     Pamphlet.     88  pages.     30  cents. 

Fl^ORER,—Bid/ica/  Selections.  With  word  list.  By  Warren  Washburn 
Florer,  University  of  Michigan.     88  pages.     Cloth,  40  cents. 

FLORER. — Questions  on  Thomas's  German  Grammar^  with  Essentials  of 
Grammar  in  German.  By  Warren  Washburn  Florer,  University  of 
Michigan.     Pamphlet.     62  pages.     20  cents. 

FLORER. — A  Guide  for  the  Study  of  Heyse's  V Arrabbiata.  With 
Questions  for  Grammar  Review.  By  Warren  W.  Florer,  University 
of  Michigan.     Pamphlet.     20  pages.     20  cents. 

FLORER. — Heyse''s  V Arrabbiata.  With  word  list  and  questions  for  con- 
versation and  grammar  review.  By  Warren  Washburn  Florer,  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan.     80  pages.     Cloth,  35  cents. 

FLORER. — A  Guide  for  the  Study  of  Goethe's  Egmont.  By  Warren  Wash- 
burn Florer.     Pamphlet.     30  cents. 

FORD. —  The  Cranial  Nerves.  12  pairs.  By  C.  L.  Ford,  M.D.,  late 
Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  in  University  of  Michigan. 
Chart.     25  cents. 

FORD. — Classification  of  the  Most  Important  Muscles  of  the  Human 
Body,  With  Qrigin  Insertion,  Nervous  Supply  and  Principal  Action 
of  Each.  By  C.  L.  Ford,  M.D.,  late  Professor  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology  in  the  University  of  Michigan.     Chart.     50  cents. 

GRAY. — Outline  of  Anatomy.  A  Guide  to  the  Dissection  of  the  Human 
Body,  Based  on  Gray'^s  Anatomy.  By  S.  M.  Yutzy,  M.  D.,  Instructor 
in  Osteology  and  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy  in  the  University  of 
Michigan.     54  pages.     Leatherette,  50  cents. 

The  objects  of  the  outline  are  to  inform  the  students  what  structures  are  found 
in  each  region  and  where  the  description  of  each  structure  is  found  in  Gray's  Ana- 
tomy.— Fifteenth  edition,  dated  1901. 

GREENE. —  The  Action  of  Materials  Under  Stress,  or  Structural  Me- 
chanics. With  examples  and  problems.  By  Charles  E.  Greene, 
A.M.,  M.E.,  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  in  the  University  of 
Michigan.     Consulting  Engineer:     Octavo.     Cloth,  ^3.00. 

GliTia^.— Laboratory  Exercises  with  Primary  and  Storage  Cells.  By 
Karl  E.  Guthe,  Assistant  Professor  of  Physics,  University  of  Michi- 
gan.    58  pages.     17  illustrations.     Cloth,  45  cents. 


Publications  of  George   Wahr^  Ann  Arbor.  5 

HERDMAN-NAGLER. — A  Laboratory  Manual  of  Electrotherapeutics. 
By  William  James  Herdman,  Ph.B.,  M.D.,   Professor  of  Diseases  of 
the  Nervous  System  and  Electrotherapeutics,  University  of  Michigan, 
and  Frank  W.   Nagler,  B.S.,  Instructor  in  Electrotherapeutics,  Uni- 
versity of  Michiejan.     Octavo.     163  pages.     55  illustrations.     Cloth, 
$1.50. 
It  has  been  our  experience  that  the  knowledge  required  by  the  student  of  medi- 
cine concerning  electricity  and  its  relation  to  animal  economy  is  best  acquired  by 
the  laboratory  method.     By  that  method  of  instruction  each  principle  is  impressed 
upon  the  mind  through  several  separate  paths  of  the  sense  perception  and  a  manual 
dexterity  is  acquired  which  is  essential  to  success  in  the  therapeutic  applications. 
This  has  been  the  plan  adopted  for  teaching  electrotherapeutics  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan.     Every  form  of  electric  modality  that  has  any  distinctive  physio- 
logical or  therapeutical  effect  is  studied  in  the  laboratory  as  to  its  methods  of  gen- 
eration, control  and  application  to  the  patient.     We  believe  this  to  be  the  only 
practicable  way  for  imparting  the  kind  of  instruction  required  for  the  practice  of 
electrotherapeutics,  but  in  our  attempt  to  develop  a  naturally  progressive  and  at  the 
same  time  complete  and  consistent  course  of  laboratory  instruction  we  have  found  it 
a  thing  of  slow  growth. 

This  laboratory  manual  is  the  final  result  of  our  various  trials  and  experiences, 
and  while  we  do  not  claim  for  it  either  perfection  in  the  arrangement  of  matter  or 
completeness  in  detail,  we  feel  that  the  time  has  come  for  putting  our  plans  in  a  form 
that  will  permit  for  it  a  wider  usefulness  as  well  as  gain  for  it  in  the  intelligent  criticism 
of  the  experienced  workers  to  the  field  which  it  seeks  to  cultivate. — From  Preface. 

HILDNER. — Citaten  Quartett  zu  Storm'' s  Immensee.  By  Jonathan  Hild- 
ner,  University  of  Michigan.  German  Conversational  Cards.  Boxed, 
50  cents. 

HILDNER-DIEKHOFF.— ^/^rw'j  Immensee.  Edited  by  Jonathan 
Hildner  and  Tobias  Diekhoff,  University  of  Michigan.  With  com- 
plete Vocabulary.     112  pages.     Cloth,  35  cents. 

HILDNER-DIEKHOFF.  — Z^tV/r^^^w  zu  Storms  Immensee.  By 
Jonathan  Hildner  und  Tobias  Diekhoff,  University  of  Michigan. 
Pamphlet.      16  pages.     15  cents. 

li\l^D^RR'^lB.KUOFF .—Freytag  die  Journalisten.  With  notes  and 
questions.  By  Jonathan  Hildner  and  Tobias  Diekhoff,  University  of 
Michigan.     174  pages.     Cloth,  60  cents. 

HOWELL. — Directions  for  Laboratory  Work  in  Physiology  for  the  Use 
of  Medical  Classes.  By  W.  H.  Howell,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  Professor  of 
Physiology  and  Histology.     Pamphlet.     62  pages.     65  cents. 

HUBER. — Directions  for  Work  in  the  Histological  Laboratory.     By  G. 
Carl  Huber,  M.D.,   Assistant  Professor   of    Histology  and    Embry- 
ology, University  of  Michigan.    Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
Octavo.     204  pages.     Cloth,  $1.50. 
It  is  adapted  for  classes  in  medical  schools  and  elsewhere  where  it  is  desired  to 
furnish  the  class  with  material  already  prepared  for  the  demonstration  of  structure 
rather  than  to  give  instruction  in  the  technique  of  the  laboratory.    Provision  for  the 
latter  Is  made,  however,  by  the  addition  of  a  section  of  about  60  pages  on  the  meth- 
ods for  laboratory  work.     This  section  includes  methods  of  macerating,  hardening 
and  fixing,  decalcifying,  impregnation,  injecting,  embedding,  c:aining,  and  methods 
for  preparing  and  staining  blood  preparations.     The  last  is  accompanied  by  an  ex- 
cellent plate  of  blood  elements.    The  selection  of  methods  has  in  the  main  been 
judicious.    The  expositions  are  both  clear  and  concise.— Joumai  of  Comparative 
Neurology. 

In  this  little  book  Dr.  Huber  has  given  us  a  model  manual  of  microscopical  tech- 
nique in  the  laboratory  study  of  histology.  The  subject  matter  is  divided  into  con- 
venient chapters,  commencing  with  the  cell  and  cell  division  (karyokinesis)  in  plant 
and  animal  life,  and  gradually  developing,  by  easy  stages,  the  most  complex  tissues 
of  the  animal  and  vegetable  organism.  Between  each  lesson  blank  pages  are  inter- 
leaved, to  be  used  by  the  student  for  drawing  the  objects  seen  by  him  with  a  pencil 
or  crayon — a  most  excellent  plan  as  nothing  fixes  the  appearance  and  characteristics 
of  objects  more  firmly  on  the  mind  than  drawing  them,  either  free-hand  or  with  a 
camraa  lucida  (the  former  being  preferable,  as  it  educates  the  hand  and  eye).  With 


6  Publications  of  George   Wahr,  Ann  Arbor. 

each  subject  is  given  the  source  and  origin,  the  best  methods  for  obtaining  and  pre- 
paring it,  and  attention  is  called  to  the  most  noteworthy  or  characteristic  points  for 
examination. 

The  second  part  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  methods  for  laboratory  work:  soften 
ing,  hardening,  decalcification,  etc.,  of  the  matter  in  gross;  embedding,  sectioning, 
staining  and  mounting,  etc.  The  best  stains,  with  methods  of  preparing  the  same, 
and,  in  short,  a  general  formulary  for  the  various  reagents,  etc.,  concludes  the  work, 
which  is  intended,  as  stated,  as  an  ai^  memoire  supplementary  to  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  histology. 

We  congratulate  Dr.  Huber  on  the  skill  with  which  he  has  developed  the  idea, 
and  the  didactic  methods  which  he  has  employed.  Such  a  book  cannot  but  prove  a 
great  help  to  both  student  and  teacher,  and  it  should  be  more  widely  known  — St. 
Louis  Medical  and  SuraeotVs  Journal. 

Dr.  Carl  Ruber's  Laboratory  Work  in  Histology  is  an  excellent  manual,  and  if 
the  medical  students  of  Michigan  University  are  conscientiously  put  through  it  they 
must  be  extremely  well  taught.  Dr.  Huber  puts  the  methods  of  embedding,  staining, 
etc.,  in  a  clear  tabular  form,  and  gives  full  practical  instructions  in  all  those  minute 
details  which  can  only  be  given  by  a  man  who  has  a  masterly  knowledge  of  his  sub- 
ject. The  American  student,  according  to  the  evidence  of  this  textbook,  has  the 
work  of  cutting  and  staining  done  for  him,  and  has  only  to  mount  sections  affixed  to 
coverslips.  By  this  plan  he  must  gain  an  excellent  collection  of  slides. — British 
Medical  Journal. 

JOHNSON.— £/emenls  of  I Ae  La7u  of  Negotiable  Contracts.  By  E.  F. 
Johnson,  B.S.,  LL.M.,  formerly  Professor  of  Law  in  the  Department 
of  Law  of  the  University  of  Michigan.  8vo.  735  pages.  Full  law 
sheep  binding,  $3.75. 

Several  yeais  of  experience  as  an  instructor  has  taught  the  author  that  the  best 
method  of  impressing  a  principle  upon  the  mind  of  the  student  isto  show  him  a  prac- 
tical application  of  it.  To  remember  abstract  propositions,  without  knowing  their 
application,  is  indeed  difficult  for  the  average  student.  But  when  the  primary  prin- 
ciple is  once  associated  in  his  mind  with  particular  facts  illustrating  its  applica- 
tion, it  is  more  easily  retained  and  more  rapidly  applied  to  analogous  cases. 

It  is  deemed  advisable  that  the  student  in  the  law  should  be  required,  during  his 
course,  to  master  in  connection  with  each  general  branch  of  the  law,  a  few  well-se- 
lected cases  which  are  illustrative  of  the  philosophy  of  that  subject.  To  require  each 
student  to  do  this  in  the  larger  law  schools  has  been  found  to  be  impracticable,  ow- 
ing to  a  lack  of  a  sufficient  number  of  copies  of  individual  cases.  The  only  solution 
of  this  difficulty  seems  to  be  to  place  in  the  hands  of  each  student  a  volume  contain- 
ing the  desired  cases.  In  the  table  of  cases  will  be  found  many  leading  cases  printed 
in  black  type.— From  Preface. 

KmK.— Brother  Toper  and  Other  College  Verse.  By  R.  R.  Kirk.  47  pages. 
Brocaded  Silk,  40  cents;    Ooze  Leather,  60  cents. 

KIRN.— Religion  a  Rational  Demand.     By  Rev.  G.  J.  Kirn,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 
230  pages.      i2mo.     $1.00. 
It  is  really  a  fascinating  theme,  particularly  to  thoughtful  and  intelligent  people- 
The  chapter  on  Materialism  is  alone  worth  the  cost  of  the  book. — Evangelical  Mes. 
senger. 

LEVI-FRANCOIS. — Questions  Based  on  Levi  and  Francois'  Reader 
Pamphlet.     37  pages.     25  cents. 

LEVI-FRANCOIS.—^  French  Reader  for  Beginners,  with  Notes  and 
Vocabulary.     By  Moritz  Levi,  Assistant  Professor  of  French,  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan,  and  Victor  E.  Francois,  Instructor  in  French,  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan.      12  mo.     261  pages.     $1.00. 
This  reader  differs  from  its  numerous  predecessors  in  several  respects.     First, 
being  aware  that  students  and  teachers  in  the  French  as  well  as  in  the  German  de- 
partments of  high  schools  and  colleges  are  becoming  tired  of  translating  over  and 
over  again  the  same  old  fairy  tales,  the  editors  have  avoided  them  and  selected  some 
interesting  and  easy  short  stories.    They  have  also  suppressed  the  poetic  selections 
which  are  never  translated  in  the  class  room.     Finally,  they  have  exercised  the  great- 
est care  in  the  gradation  of  the  passages  chosen  and  in  the  preparation  of  the  vocab- 
ulary, every  French  word  being  followed  not  only  by  its  primitive  or  ordinary  mean- 
ing, but  also  by  the  different  English  equivalents  which  the  text  requires.     After 
careful  examination,  we  consider  this  reader  as  one  of  the  best  on  the  American 
market. 


Publications  of  George   Wahr,  Ann  Arbor.  7 

LLOYD. — Philosophy  of  History.  An  Introduction  to  the  Philosophical 
Study  of  Politics.  By  Professor  Alfred  H.  Lloyd,  University  of 
Michigan.     i2mo.     250  pages.     Cloth,  $1.00. 

Philosophy  of  History. — "Professor  Lloyd  has  already  outlined  his  conception 
of  history  in  a  volume  entitled  Citizenship  and  Salvation  (1897).  The  present  ex- 
position is  at  the  same  time  more  definite  and  more  comprehensive.  About  a  third 
of  the  book  is  devoted  to  a  philosophic  study  of  the  data  of  history;  and  this  is 
followed  by  an  analysis  of  the  social  unit,  the  group,  and  by  a  systematic  account  of 
the  formula  of  history  as  it  appears  to  the  philosopher.  The  last  four  chapters  are 
essays  in  which  such  topics  as  "Good  and  Evil"  and  'The  Great  Man"  are  treated 
from  the  historical  point  of  view  which  is  expounded  in  the  main  part  of  the  vol- 
ume. In  these  chapters  as  well  as  in  the  second  part  of  the  book  acute  and  valua- 
ble comments  on  different  phases  of  historical  development  abound.  The  first  part 
of  the  volume,  however,  discussing  Time,  Causation,  the  Individual  and  Nature  as 
data  of  history  [is  the  most]  valuable."— 7"-^^  Philosophical  Review^  March,  /goo. 

"The  Philosophy  of  History  is  a  meritorious  attempt  to  connect  the  facts  of 
history  with  the  causes  which  have  influenced  the  social  evolution  of  the  human 
race.     Most  writers  are  satisfied  with  the  visible,  immediate  and  direct  causes  of 

the  rise  or  fall  of  nations but  Professor  Lloyd  wants  us  to  go  deeper 

yet, [but]  whatever  be  the  mental  attitude  of  the  readers  with  regard 

to  the  positions  advocated  in  the  book  all  will  admit  that  it  is  written  with  great 
keenness  of  perception  and  with  a  sincere  desire  to  reconcile,  so  far  as  possible,  all 
intellectual  and  moral  differences.  If  the  author  has  not  succeeded  in  accomplish- 
ing the  task  [of  reconciliation],  it  is  because  there  are  differences  that  can  not  be 
reconciled,  even  by  benevolence  and  ingenuity  combined." — Annals  of  the  Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science^  March,  1900. 

LYMAN-HALL-GODDARD.— ^/^^/5ra.  By  Elmer  A.  Lyman,  A.B., 
Edwin  C.  Goddard,  Ph.B.,  and  Arthur  G.  Hall,  B.S.,  Instructor 
in  Mathematics,  University  of  Michigan.  Octavo.  75  pages.  Cloth, 
90  cents. 

MATTHEWS. — Syllabus  oj  Lectures  on  Pharniatologv  and  Therapeu- 
tics in  the  University  of  Michigan.  Arranged  Especially  for  the 
Use  of  the  Classes  Taking  the  Work  in  Pharmacology  and  Thera- 
peutics at  the  University  of  Michigan.  By  S.  A.  Matthews,  M.D., 
Assistant  in  Pharmacy  and  Therapeutics,  University  of  Michigan. 
i2mo.      114  pages.     $1.00. 

McCANDLESS.— 7a;^«/<zr  Analysis  of  the  Law  of  Real  Property^ 
following  Blackstone.  Arranged  by  L.  W.  McCandless.  19  charts. 
Quarto.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

This  analysis  follows  Book  II  of  Blackstone,  and  will  prove  a  very  valuable  aid 
to  students.  The  critic  remembers  that  in  the  dim  and  hoary  past  when  he  was 
a  student  himself,  he  prepared  an  analysis  of  Bispam's  Equity.  He  certainly  en- 
deavored to  do  complete  justice  to  that  learned  work  and  the  result  was  a  sheet 
some  1x4  (yards)  in  dimensions.  Acting  according  to  the  advice  of  some  intimate 
friends  he  hung  it  up,  on  a  shade  roller,  but  somehow,  never  could  persuade  any- 
body to  read  it  completely  thrcugh.  In  fact,  the  aforesaid  critic  was  afraid  to 
attempt  it  itself  when  the  "  magnum  opus  "  was  once  finished  and  the  fearful  and 
wonderful  document  still  remains  filed  away  somewhere  among  his  dusty  papers. 
This  little  incident  of  a  past  career  is  mentioned  not  that  we  would  discourage  the 
reader  of  Mr.  McCandless's  work  or  in  any  way  compare  his  learned  production  with 
the  superficial  synopsis  which  we  had  ourselves  compiled.  It  has  long  been  a  source 
of  wonder  to  us  why  real  estate  law  has  not  hitherto  been  "chartered,"  for  there  seems 
to  be  no  branch  of  jurisprudence  so  well  adapted  to  such  a  form  of  presentation. 
The  author's  work  gives  a  bird's  eye  view  of  real  property  principles  and  as  pre- 
viously stated  will  prove  of  great  value  to  the  student,  particularly  around  examina- 
tion time  for  he  can  tell  at  a  glance  what  would  otherwise  force  him  to  spend  much 
valuable  time  in  searching  through  Blackstone.  Take  it  all  in  all,  the  author  is  to 
be  heartily  commended  and  we  would  like  to  see  his  work  used  as  a  text  book  in 
not  only  the  University  of  Michigan  but  in  all  the  leading  law  schools  of  the  country. 
For  the  benefit  of  them  who  have  not  had  the  pleasure  of  perusing  it  we  can  state 
that  it  is  a  series  of  some  nineteen  large  charts  each  about  2  feet  by  ij/^,  handsomely 
bound  so  that  the  entire  subject  may  be  embraced  in  series  of  sweeping  glances. — 
Law  Journal,  N.  Y. 


8  Publications  of  George   Wahr,  Ann  Arbor. 

MEADER. — Chronological  Outline  of  Roman  Literature.  By  C.  L. 
Meader,  A.B.,  Instructor  in  Latin  in  University  of  Michigan, 
Chart.     25  cents. 

MICHIGAN  BOOK.— T:^^  U.  of  M.  Book.  A  Record  of  Student  Life 
and  Student  Organizations  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  Articles 
contributed  by  members  of  the  Faculty  and  by  prominent  Alumni. 
$1.50. 

MONTGOMERY-SMITH.— Za<^^rrt/^rj/  Manual  of  Elementary  Chem- 
istry. By  Jabez  Montgomery,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Science, 
Ann  Arbor  High  School,  and  Roy  B.  Smith,  Assistant  Profes- 
sor in  Chemical  Laboratory-,  Ann  Arbor  High  School.  12  mo.  150 
pages.     Cloth,  $1.00. 

This  Work  is  intended  as  a  laboratory  guide  to  be  used  in  connection  with  a  good 
text-book  or  course  of  lectures,  and  in  its  arrangement  and  scope  it  is  based  upon 
the  practical  experience  of  two  instructors  in  the  Ann  Arbor  High  School,  It  is 
therefore  restricted  to  such  work  as  may  be  done  by  the  average  high  school  pupil. 
The  experiments  which  are  directed  are  given  more  to  enable  the  student  to  compre- 
hend the  methods  of  analytical  chemistry  than  to  acquire  particular  proficiency  in 
the  work  of  chemical  analysis.  The  work  is  characterized  by  minuteness  of  explan- 
ation, a  feature  which  will  be  appreciated  by  the  beginner.— P/iarmaceuWcai  t^ra. 

MORRIS.— az«?V«/  Temperature  Chart.  By  Roger  S.  Morris,  A.  B., 
M.  D.,  University  of  Michigan.  Postpaid,  48  cents  per  quire. 
There  are  spaces  for  stools,  urine,  dates  and  days  of  disease  besides  abundant 
room  for  the  personal  data,  diagnosis,  treatment,  termination,  and  for  daily  notes. 
Anything  that  assists  and  favors  accuracy  in  clinical  records,  either  in  hospital  or 
private  practice,  should  be  welcomed  by  physicians,  and  those  who  are  looking  for 
a  chart  different  from  those  now  in  use  are  warmly  advised  to  examine  this  one. 

NETTO. —  The  Theory  of  Substitutions  and  its  Application  to  Algebra. 
By  Dr.  Eugene  Netto,  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Giessen.  Revised  by  the  author  and  translated  with  his  permission, 
by  F.  N.  Cole,  Ph.D.,  formerly  Assistant  Professor  of  Mathematics 
in  the  University  of  Michigan,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Columbia 
University.     8  vo.     301  pages.     Cloth,  $3.00. 

NOVY. — Laboratory  Work  in  Physiological  Chemistry.  By  Frederick  G. 
Novy,  Sc.D.,  M.D.,  Junior  Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Physiological 
Chemistry,  University  of  Michigan.  Second  edition,  revised  and 
enlarged.  With  frontispiece  and  24  illustrations.  Octavo.  Cloth, 
$2.00. 

This  book  is  designed  for  directing  laboratory  work  of  medical  students,  and  in 
showing  them  how  to  study  the  physics  and  physiology  of  the  digestive  functions  of 
the  blood,  the  urine  and  other  substances  which  the  body  contains  normally,  or 
which  it  speedily  eliminates  as  effete  material.  The  second  edition  has  appeared 
within  a  very  short  time  after  the  publication  of  the  first.  The  first  chapters  deal 
with  the  facts,  the  carbohydrates  and  proieids.  Then  follow  others  upon  the  saliva, 
the  gastric  juice,  the  pancreatic  secretion,  the  bile,  blood,  milk,  and  urine,  while  the 
closing  chapter  deals  with  a  list  of  reagents. 

While  the  book  is  manifestly  designed  for  the  use  of  Dr.  Novy's  own  students,  we 
doubt  not  that  other  teachers  will  find  it  a  valuable  aid  in  their  work.  At  the  close 
of  the  volume  are  a  number  of  illustrations  of  the  various  sedimentary  substances 
found  in  the  urine,  taken  from  the  work  of  von  Jaksch.— T/ie  Thtrapeutic  Gazette 

This  book,  although  now  in  its  second  edition,  is  practically  unknown  to  British 
readers.  Up  to  the  present,  anyone  wishing  to  find  out  how  a  particular  analytical 
method  in  physiological  chemistry  ought  to  be  carried  out,  had  of  necessity  to  refer 
to  a  German  text-book.  This  comparatively  small  book— for  it  only  covers  some 
three  hundred  pages— gives  as  good  a  general  account  of  ordinary  laboratory  methods 
as  any  teacher  or  student  could  desire.  Although  the  author  refers  in  his  preface  to 
help  derived  from  the  works  of  Salkowski,  Hammarsten  and  others,  it  is  but  fair  to 
say  that  the  book  has  undoubtedly  been  written  by  one  who  has  worked  out  the 
methods  and  knows  the  importance  of  exact  practical  details— E(JinibMrflf?l  Med 
Jour.,  Scotland. 


Publications  of  George   Wahr^  Ann  Arbor.  9 

Physiological  chemistry  is  one  of  the  most  important  studies  of  the  medical  curri- 
culum. The  cultivation  of  this  field  has  until  recently  been  possible  to  but  few. 
The  rapid  development  of  this  department  of  science  within  a  few  years  past  has 
thrown  much  and  needed  light  upon  physiological  processes.  It  is  from  this  quarter 
and  from  bacteriological  investigations  that  progress  must  chiefly  be  expected.  The 
rapid  growth  of  this  branch  of  chemistry  is  attended  by  another  result.  It  necessi- 
tates the  frequent  revision  of  text-books.  The  present  edition  of  Dr.  Novy's  valu- 
able book  is  almost  wholly  re-written.  It  is  reprfesentative  of  the  present  state  of 
knowledge  and  is  replete  with  information  of  value  alike  to  student  and  practitioner. 
Few  are  better  prepared  to  write  such  a  book  than  Dr.  Novy,  who  has  himself  done 
much  original  work  in  this  field.— T/ie  Medical  Bulletin,  Philadelphia. 

NOVY. — Laboratory  Work  in  Bacteriology.  By  Frederick  G.  Novy,  Sc. 
D.,  M.D.,  Junior  Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Physiological  Chemistry, 
University  of  Michigan.  Second  edition,  entirely  re-written  and 
enlarged.      563  pages.     Octavo.     $3.00. 

As  a  teacher  of  bacteriology,  the  author  has  had  extensive  experience,  and  the 
second  edition  of  his  book  will  be  highly  prized  by  students  for  its  practical  service 
and  thoroughness.  The  methods  of  investigation  described  are  mainly  those  which 
have  been  employed  in  the  hygienic  laboratory  or  the  University  of  Michigan,  and 
they  have  stood  the  test  of  practical  demonstration  and  usefulness.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  parts  of  the  book  is  the  chapter  on  the  chemistry  of  bacteria,  and 
the  general  reader  cannot  fail  to  obtain  from  it  a  clear  understanding  of  the  com- 
plex changes  induced  by  these  minute  organisms.  The  functions  of  the  various 
ferments  are  also  very  cleverly  discussed.  An  enumeration  of  the  chapter  headings 
will  serve  to  show  the  scope  of  the  work:  Form  and  Classification  of  Bacteria;  Size 
and  Structure  of  Bacterial  Cell;  Life  History  of  Bacteria;  Environment  of  Bacteria; 
Chemistry  of  Bacteria;  the  Microscope;  Cultivation  of  Bacteria;  Non-Pathogenic 
Bacteria;  Bouillon,  Agar,  Milk  and  Modified  Media,  the  Incubator  and  Accessories; 
Relation  of  Bacteria  to  Disease — Methods  of  Infection  and  Examination;  Patho- 
genic Bacteria;  Yeasts,  Moulds  and  Streptotrices;  Examination  of  Water,  Soil  and 
Air;  Special  Methods  of  Work.  To  the  latter  subject,  two  chapters  are  devoted, 
in  which  are  very  fully  outlined  various  special  methods  of  value  to  advanced 
students.— P/iar7nac6uticaf£ra,  N .  Y. 

PATTENGILL. — Rules  for  the  Pronunciation  of  Greek  and  Latin  Proper 
Names.  By  A.  W.  Pattengill,  Professor  in  the  University  of  Michigan. 
Pamphlet.     5  cents. 

PUTNAM. — A  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Development  of  Primary  and  Second-. 
ary  Ptiblic  Education  in  Michigan.  By  Daniel  Putnam  of  the  State 
Normal  College.     12  mo.     300  pages.     ^1,00. 

REED-GUTHE, — A  Manual  of  Physical  Measurements,  By  John  O. 
Reed,  Junior  Professor  of  Physics,  University  of  Michigan,  and 
Karl  E.  Guthe,  Assistant  Professor  of  Physics,  University  of  Michi- 
gan.    185  pages,  89  illustrations.     Octavo.     ^1.50. 

REED. — College  Physics.  For  Students  in  Acadetnies  and  Colleges. 
Physics  I.  Mechanics — Saund — Light.  By  John  O.  Reed,  Junior 
Professor  of  Physics  University  of  Michigan.  Octavo.  300  pages. 
Cloth,  ^1.50. 

ROO'D.— Important  English  Statutes.  Edited  by  John  R.  Rood,  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan.      8vo.     24  pages.     Imitation  leather,  25  cents. 

This  pamphlet  contains  the  Statute  of  Frauds  (29  Car.  II.  c,  3)  complete,  also 
Lord  Campbell's  Act,  the  Mandamus  Act  of  9  Anne,  and  the  Victorian  Wills  Act. 
The  intention  is  to  furnish  students  a  copy  of  all  those  important  English  statutes 
which  have  been  generally  re-enacted  in  the  American  statutes  and  are  therefore 
prominent  in  his  courses  of  study. 


10  Publications  of  George   Wahr^  Ann  Arbor. 

ROOD. — On  Attachments,  Garnishments,  Judgments,  and  Executions.  By 
John  R.  Rood,  University  of  Michigan.  The  table  of  contents, 
table  of  cases,  and  text  cover  183  pages.  The  leading  and  illustra- 
tive cases  and  notes  cover  514  pages.  A  very  full  index  has  been 
compressed  into  36  pages.  Total  733  pages.  The  two  books 
bound  as  one,  in  buckram,  for  one  price.     ^3.00.     Octavo. 

The  text  is  not  claimed  to  be  exhaustive  upon  any  point.  To  make  it  so  would 
defeat  the  very  purpose  for  which  it  was  written  «.  tree  is  not  complete  without  all 
its  foliage,  but  the  outline  of  the  branches  cannot  be  clearly  seen  till  the  leaves  have 
fallen.  In  the  present  discussion,  details  have  been  similarly  omitted  so  that  the 
more  important  matters  can  be  seen.  Anson  on  Contracts  may  be  said  to  cover  all  the 
matters  treated  in  the  elaborate  works  on  particular  contracts,  such  as  sales,  agency, 
partnership,  suretyship,  deeds,  mortgages,  etc  In  like  manner  this  manual  is 
intended  to  explain  all  the  matters  covered  by  the  extensive  treatises  on  jurisdiction, 
judgments,  res  judicata,  attachment,  garnishment,  and  executions.  It  is  not  de- 
signed to  trespass  on  the  field  occupied  by  any  of  these  books,  but  to  give  what 
none  of  them  do  or  can — a  clear  outline  of  the  whole,  without  that  cloud  of  details 
and  the  confusing  review  of  inconsistent  decisions  upon  them,  which  the  writer  of  a 
complete  text  must  give.  In  this  way,  it  is  hoped  that  a  comprehensive  view  of 
broad  fundamental  principles  may  be  obtained,  with  a  clear  vision  of  the  relations 
between  each  part  and  all  the  others,  and  of  the  successive  steps  in  each  pro- 
ceeding from  beginning  to  end 

SOLIS. —  The  Diagnosis  of  Diseases  of  the  Cord,  Location  of  Lesions. 
By  Dr.  Grasset.  Translated  by  Jeanne  C.  Solis,  M.D.,  Demon- 
strator of  Nervous  Diseases  and  Electrothereapeutics  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan.     98  pages.     Cloth,  65  cents. 

STRUMPELL. — Short  Guide  for  the  Clinical  Examination  of  Patients. 
Compiled  for  the  Practical  Students  of  the  Clinic,  by  Professor  Dr. 
Adolf  Striimpell,  Director  of  the  Medical  Clinic  in  Erlangen.  Trans- 
lated by  permission  from  the  third  German  edition,  by  Jos.  L.  Abt. 
39  pages.      Cloth,  35  cents. 

SUNDERLAND.— C)«^  Upward  Look  Each  Day.  Poems  of  Hope  and 
Faith.  Selected  by  J.  T.  Sunderland.  Third  Edition,  16  mo. 
White  Binding,  30  cents;    Cloth,  40  cents;   Full   morocco,  75   cents. 

SUNDERLAND— G'ramj  of  Gold.  Some  Thoughts  and  a  Brief  Prayer 
For  Each  Day  of  the  Months.  Designed  as  Daily  Helps  in  the 
Higher  Life.  Compiled  by  J.  T.  Sunderland.  White  Binding,  35 
cents. 

VAUGHAN. — Contributions  to  Medicai  Research.  Dedicated  to  Victor 
Clarence  Vaughan.  By  Colleagues  and  Former  Students  of  the  De- 
partment of  Medicine  and  Surgery  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  on 
the  Twenty-fifth  Anniversary  of  his  Doctorate.  Large  octavo  size. 
640  pages  and  200  illustrations.  Bound  in  full  Cloth,  ^5.00;  Half 
Morocco,  ^6.00. 

WARTHIN. — Practical  Pathology  for  Students  and  Physicians.  A 
Manual  of  Laboratory  and  Post-Mortem  Technic,  Designed  Espe- 
cially for  the  Use  of  Junior  and  Senior  Students  in  Pathology  at 
the  University  of  Michigan.  By  Aldred  Scott  Warthin,  Ph.D.,  M. 
D.,  Instructor  in  Pathology,  University  of  Michigan.  Octavo.  234 
pages.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

We  have  carefully  examined  this  book,  and  our  advice  to  every  student  and  prac- 
titioner of  medicine  is— buy  it.  You  will  never  regret  having  invested  your  mcaiey  in 
it  and  you  will  acquire  such  a  large  fund  of  information  that  the  study  of  pathology 
will  become  a  pleasure  instead  of  the  drudgery  which  it  so  unfortunately  seems  to 
be  in  many  cases. 


Publications  of  George   Wahr,  Ann  Arbor.  11 

Part  I.  of  this  book,  embracing  some  103  pages,  deals  with  the  materials,  which 
includes  the  proper  examination  and  notation  of  the  gross  changes  which  have 
occurred  in  every  part  of  the  body.  In  fact  it  is  a  complete  expos6  of  what  a  com 
plete  and  accurate  autopsy  should  be,  the  observance  of  which  is  oftener  followed 
in  the  breach  than  in  the  actuality.  Part  II.,  which  includes  134  pages,  deals  with 
the  treatment  of  the  material.  This  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  work,  as  it-gives 
explicit  directions  in  regard  to  the  instruments  to  use,  stains  and  staining  methods, 
drawing,  the  preservation  of  specimens,  hardening  methods,  in  fact,  of  all  those 
technical  points  connected  with  practical  pathological  microscopy.  The  examina- 
tion of  fresh  specimens,  injections,  methods  fixing  specimens  as  well  as  special 
staining  methods  are  taken  up.  In  fact,  space  forbids  us  to  give  the  entire,  which 
are  most  valuable  in  every  detail.— /St.  LouU  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 

WARTHIN.— ^  B/ank  Book  for  Autopsy  Protocols.     Second   Edition. 

By    Aldred    Scott    Warthin,   M.D.,  Ph.D.,   Assistant    Professor   of 

Pathology  in  the  University  of  Michigan.     Bound  in  Full  Canvass, 

50  cents. 

The  medical  student  at  the  University  of  Michigan  is  expected  to  attend  twenty 

autopsies  during  the  last  two  years  of  his  studies,  and  this  book  is   designed   to 

facilitate  the  keeping  of  a  careful  protocol,  which  he  is  required   to  make  in   every 

case.    The  book  is  of  a  convenient  size  and  can  accommodate  the  autopsy  protocols 

of  ten  cases.    Each  autopsy  is  allowed  ten  pages,  carefully  ruled   for  the  various 

organs. 

WATSON. —  Tables  for  the  Calculation  of  Simple  or  Compound  Intef  est 
and  Discount  and  the  Averaging  of  Accounts.  The  Values  of 
Annuities^  Leases,  Interest  in  Estates  and  the  Accumulations  and 
Values  of  Investments  at  Simple  or  Compound  Interest  for  all  Rates 
and  Periods;  also  Tables  for  the  Conversion  of  Securities  and  Value 
of  Stocks  and  Bonds.  With  full  Explanation  for  Use.  By  James 
C.  Watson,  Ph.D.,  LI..D.     Quarto.     Cloth,  $2.50. 

A  book  most  valuable  to  bankers,  brokers,  trustees,  guardians,  judges,  lawyers, 
accountants,  and  all  concerned  in  the  computation  of  interest,  the  division  and  set- 
tlement of  estates,  the  negotiation  of  securities,  or  the  borrowing  and  lending  of 
money,  is  the  above  work  of  the  late  Professor  James  C.  Watson,  formerly  Director 
of  the  Observatories  and  Professor  of  Astronomy  at  the  Universities  of  Michigan 
and  Wisconsin,  and  Actuary  of  the  Michigan  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company. 

It  contains,  in  addition  to  the  usual  tables  for  the  calculation  of  simple  or  com- 
pound interest  and  discount,  many  tables  of  remarkable  value,  not  found  elsewhere, 
for  the  averaging  of  accoutns,  the  values  of  annuities,  leases,  interests  in  estates, 
and  the  accumulations  and  values  of  investments;  also  tables  for  ihe  conversion  of 
securities,  and  the  values  of  stocks  and  bonds. 

There  are  also  given  very  full  and  clear  explanations  of  the  principles  involved  in 
financial  transactions,  and  a  great  variety  of  miscellaneous  examples  are  worked 
out  in  detail  to  illustrate  the  problems  arising  in  interest,  discount,  partial  payments, 
averaging  of  accounts,  present  values,  annuities  of  different  kinds,  annual  payments 
for  a  future  expectation  (as  in  life  insurance),  or  for  a  sinking  fund,  conversion  of 
securities,  values  of  stocks  and  bonds,  and  life  interests. 

This  book  was  issued  from  the  press  under  the  author's  careful  supervision. 
Professor  Watson  was  noted  for  his  clear  insight  into  problems  involving  computa- 
tions, and  also  for  his  wonderful  ability  in  presenting  the  method  of  solution  of  such 
problems  in  a  plain  and  simple  manner.  The  varied  array  of  practical  examples 
given  in  connect-on  with  his  "Table  "  shows  these  facts  in  a  remarkable  manner. 
This  book  provides,  for  those  least  expert  in  calculations,  the  means  of  avoiding 
mistakes  likely  to  occur ;  and  for  the  man  engrossed  in  the  cares  of  business,  the 
means  of  making  for  himself,  with  entire  accuracy,  the  calculation  which  he  may 
need,  at  the  moment  when  it  is  needed. 

WOLF-FLORER.— ^  Guide  for  the  study  of  Goethe's  Hermann  und  Doro- 
thea. By  Ernst  Wolf,  E.  Saginaw  High  School,  and  Warren  Wash- 
burn Florer,  University  of  Michigan.    Pamphlet.    82  pages.    30  cents. 

WRENTMORE.— /Yam  Alphabets  for  Offiice  and  School.  S-lected  by 
C.  G.  Wrentmore,  B.S.,  C.E.,  Instructor  in  Descriptive  Geometry 
and  Drawing,  University  of  Michigan.  Oblong.  19  plates.  Half 
leather,  75  cents. 


12  Publications  of  George   Wahr,  Ann  Arbor. 

WRENTMORE-GOULDING.— ^  Text-Book  of  Elementary  Mechan- 
ical Drawing  for  Use  in  Office  or  School.  By  Clarence  G.  Wrent- 
more,  B.S.,  C.E.,  and  Herbert  J,  Goulding,  B.S.,  M.E.,  Instructors 
in  Descriptive  Geometry  and  Drawing  at  the  University  of  Michigan. 
Quarto.     109  pages  and  165  cuts.     $1.00. 

This  book  is  intended  for  a  beginners  course  in  Elementary  Mechanical  Drawing 
for  the  office  and  school.  Illustrations  have  not  been  spared,  and  the  explanations 
have  been  made  in  a  clear  and  concise  manner  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  stu- 
dent to  the  desired  results  by  the  shortest  route  consistent  with  the  imparting  of  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

The  first  chapter  is  devoted  to  Materials  and  Instruments;  the  second  chapter, 
Mechanical  Construction;  third  chapter,  Penciling.  Inking,  Tinting;  fourth  chap- 
ter, Linear  Perspective ;  fifth  chapter.  Teeth  of  Gears. 

REV.  J.  T.  XQiUI^Ci  —''  Mormonisfu:  Its  Origin^  Doctrines,  and 
Dangers.''^     Pamphlet.     72  pages.     25  cents. 

This  brochure  of  seventy  pages  in  paper  covers  is  a  sharp  attack  on  the  Mormon 
system,  showing  that  its  beginnings  were  in  fraud  and  villainy,  that  its  doctrines 
are  debasing,  and  that  its  continuance  in  the  United  States  is  a  political  and  reli- 
gious menace.  If  Mormonism  is  one-tenth  as  bad  as  this  booklet  represents,  the 
marvel  is  that  the  viper  life  was  not  crushed  out  long  a.go.~The  Standard,  Chicago. 

Souvenir  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor.  Containing  38 
photo-gravures  of  President  James  B.  Angell,  prominent  University 
Buildings,  Fraternity  Houses,  Churches,  Views  of  Ann  Arbor,  Etc., 
Etc.     Done  up  in  blue  silk  cloth  binding.     Price,  50  cents,  postpaid. 

Physical  Laboratory  Note  Book. — A  Note  Book  for  the  Physical  Lab- 
oratory. Designed  to  be  used  in  connection  with  any  Physical 
Laboratory  Manual.  Contains  full  directions  for  keeping  a  Physical 
Laboratory  Note  Book.  112  pages  of  excellent  ledger  writing  paper, 
ruled  in  cross  sections.  Metric  System,  size  7  x  9^  inches.  Bound  in 
full  canvass,  leather  corners.  Price,  by  mail,  30  cents.  Special 
prices  to  Schools  furnished  on  application. 

Botanical  Laboratory  Note  Book. — A  Note  Book  for  the  Botanical  Lab- 
oratory.  200  pages  of  best  writing  paper,  ruled  with  top  margins. 
Pocket  on  inside  of  front  cover  for  drawing  cards.  Bound  in  sub- 
stantial cloth  cover  and  leather  back.  Size  6x  9^.  Price,  by  mail, 
35  cents.     Special  prices  to  schools  furnished  on  application. 

Engineering  Laboratory  Note  Book. — A  Note  Book  for  the  Engineering 
Laboratory,  University  of  Michigan.  Full  sheep  binding.  Size 
5/^x8.  Contains  200  pages.  (With  general  directions.  Cross  sec- 
tion ruled).     Price,  75  cents. 

Field  Engineering  Note  Book,  Surveying. — 200  pages.  Cross  section 
ruled.     Full  Sheep  binding,  50  cents. 


--  i.^'ili^i-s  Ji-^^    °^    25    CENTS 


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